General will

General will, in political theory, a collectively held will that aims at the common good or common interest. The general will is central to the political philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and an important concept in modern republican thought. Rousseau distinguished the general will from the particular and often contradictory wills of individuals and groups. In Du Contrat social (1762; The Social Contract), Rousseau argued that freedom and authority are not contradictory, since legitimate laws are founded on the general will of the citizens. In obeying the law, the individual citizen is thus only obeying himself as a member of the political community.

The notion of the general will precedes Rousseau and has its roots in Christian theology. In the second half of the 17th century, Nicolas Malebranche attributed the general will to God. God, Malebranche argued, mostly acts in the world through a set of “general laws” instituted at the creation of the world. These laws correspond to God’s general will, in contradistinction to particular expressions of God’s will: miracles and other occasional acts of divine intervention. For Malebranche, it is because God’s will expresses itself mainly through general laws that one can make sense of the apparent contradiction between God’s will to save all of humankind and the fact that most souls will not actually be saved. Rousseau’s own understanding of the general will emerged from a critique of Denis Diderot, who transformed Malebranche’s understanding of the general will into a secular concept but who echoed Malebranche by defining it in universalistic terms. In his article “Droit naturel” (“Natural Right”) published in 1755 in the Encyclopédie, Diderot argued that morality is based on the general will of humankind to improve its own happiness. Individuals can access this moral ideal by reflecting on their interests as members of the human race. The general will, Diderot believed, is necessarily directed at the good since its object is the betterment of all.

For Rousseau, however, the general will is not an abstract ideal. It is instead the will actually held by the people in their capacity as citizens. Rousseau’s conception is thus political and differs from the more universal conception of the general will held by Diderot. To partake in the general will means, for Rousseau, to reflect upon and to vote on the basis of one’s sense of justice. Individuals become conscious of their interests as citizens, according to Rousseau, and thus of the interest of the republic as a whole, not through spirited discussions but, on the contrary, by following their personal conscience in the “silence of the passions.” In this sense, the public assembly does not debate so much as disclose the general will of the people. Rousseau argued that the general will is intrinsically right, but he also criticized in some works (mainly in his Discours sur les sciences et les arts (1750; Discourse on the Sciences and Arts) the rationalist elevation of reason above feelings. This has provoked scholarly debate about the rational and affective dimensions of the general will. On the one hand, the general will reflects the rational interest of the individual (as citizen) as well as that of the people as a whole. On the other hand, the general will is not purely rational because it emerges out of an attachment and even a love for one’s political community.

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constitution: Rousseau and the general will

Rousseau assumed that all people are capable of taking the moral standpoint of aiming at the common good and that, if they did so, they would reach a unanimous decision. Thus, in an ideal state, laws express the general will. While citizens may be wrong and deceived, according to Rousseau, they will aim at justice as long as they pursue the interest of the people rather than follow their interests as individuals or as members of different groups. Seen from this perspective, the individual who breaches the law is acting not only against the instituted government but also against that individual’s higher interest as a member of the political community. In a famous passage of The Social Contract, Rousseau argued that requiring such an individual to abide by the law is thus nothing else than “forcing him to be free.” On this basis, critics including Benjamin Constant and Jacob Talmon have accused Rousseau of being an authoritarian thinker and, in the second case, a forefather of totalitarian politics. Talmon’s indictment has, however, been largely discredited.

While scholars differ on the meaning of the aforementioned passage, there is wide agreement that Rousseau was concerned with preserving civil liberty and autonomy, not with giving free reign to government. In fact, the concept of the general will also implies a proscription against despotism. For Rousseau, government is legitimate only insofar as it is subordinated to popular sovereignty or, in other words, follows the general will of the people. Government loses all legitimacy the moment it places itself above the law to pursue its own interest as a separate political body.

The concept of the general will has had a deep and lasting influence on modern republican thought, particularly in the French tradition. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 (article 6), a founding document of the current French Constitution, defined law as the expression of the general will.