county

county, internal territorial and administrative division in the United Kingdom, United States, and other English-speaking countries.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom the county, or shire, has historically been the principal subdivision of the country for political, administrative, judicial, and cultural purposes. Each of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom—England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales—is divided into a number of historic counties. These historic counties, in many cases, no longer correspond to current administrative subdivisions but remain an important focus of local identity. Some judicial jurisdictions still use historic county boundaries rather than current administrative boundaries; and cultural activities, such as the sport of cricket, are still organized according to historic counties.

Before the Norman Conquest (1066), the chief unit of local government in England was the shire, which had originated in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the early Middle Ages. Each shire was ruled by an ealdorman (alderman), but after the 11th century his functions were taken over by the shire-reeve, or sheriff, who was appointed by the king. By the 14th century a county court, composed of several justices of the peace, or magistrates, had developed to help the sheriff administer the county. Over the centuries these crown-appointed magistrates gradually became the primary administrators of counties. Each county also became the constituency for the elections of knights of the shire, or county members of Parliament.

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United Kingdom: The county communities

This system of county government, with centrally appointed justices of the peace holding legislative, judicial, and executive powers, became inadequate in the 19th century as the suffrage was extended, government services expanded, and industrial cities continued to grow. To remedy this undemocratic system, the Local Government Act of 1888 established county councils, with members elected by local residents, to take over the legislative and executive duties of the magistrates. The act also created new administrative counties, which sometimes had different boundaries than the historic counties after which they were usually named, and created about 60 county boroughs, cities that were given county powers to better provide local government services.

A number of administrative reorganizations took place during the 1960s and ’70s, beginning with the creation in 1965 of the metropolitan county of Greater London, which combined all or parts of several earlier administrative counties. The Local Government Act of 1972 again reorganized the system of administrative counties in England and Wales; 47 new administrative counties contained all urban as well as rural areas within their boundaries, and each administrative county was subdivided into several districts, which numbered almost 300 in all. These changes took effect in 1974. Meanwhile, in Northern Ireland an administrative reorganization in 1973 replaced that country’s six administrative counties and two county boroughs with 26 single-tier, or “unitary,” administrative districts. These administrative districts are called unitary because they have only a single layer of government, unlike administrative counties, which are further subdivided into districts. After 1974 in England and Wales, administrative counties provided police and fire services, education, social welfare services, public transport, traffic regulation, consumer protection, libraries, and some highways and parks. The county council was the general governing board of the administrative county; it was a large body, with 50 to 100 popularly elected members, and much of its basic administrative work was delegated to committees. In 1975 the 34 administrative counties of Scotland were replaced by nine administrative regions, each subdivided into a number of districts.

A further series of administrative reorganizations took place in the United Kingdom during the 1980s and ’90s. In 1986 Greater London and six other metropolitan counties lost their administrative functions, which passed to their constituent boroughs. These boroughs became, in effect, unitary districts like those in Northern Ireland. In 2000, however, the metropolitan county of Greater London regained some of its administrative powers. In 1996 the eight administrative counties of Wales were replaced by 22 new unitary counties and unitary county boroughs. Likewise, in 1996 the nine administrative regions of Scotland were replaced by 32 new unitary local government areas. In England between 1995 and 1998, 46 new unitary authorities were carved out of preexisting administrative counties. Most of these encompass urban centres, while most English administrative counties now cover slightly smaller and more rural areas. However, five of the former administrative counties of England were abolished completely and replaced by one or more unitary authorities. In 2009, nine new unitary authorities were established, bringing the total to 56—including the Isles of Scilly, which has a special status.

United States

In the United States the county is the principal geographic and political subdivision of the states. All states divide their territories into counties except Louisiana, where the equivalent units are called parishes, and Alaska, where they are called boroughs. A few cities, mostly in Virginia but also including St. Louis, Missouri, and Baltimore, Maryland, are outside any county government. In the late 20th century there were about 3,140 counties in the United States, ranging from 3 in Delaware to more than 250 in Texas.

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The functions of the U.S. counties vary from state to state, but in most states they include law enforcement, judicial administration, road construction and maintenance, the provision of public assistance to the needy, and the recording of legal documents. In some states, principally in the South, the county plays an important role in school administration. Some counties may also provide health protection, hospitals, libraries, parks, weed control, fire protection, and agricultural aid. In New England, however, counties administer little beyond courts of law and legal records, while towns (townships) within the counties perform all other municipal functions.

The principal organ of county government is usually a board of commissioners or supervisors, whose members are elected either from county subdivisions or districts or from the county at large. The board usually has three or five members, and a four-year term is common. The county board can levy taxes and borrow money on behalf of the county, but its bond issues often require voter approval. In addition to members of the board, the voters of a county elect certain other officials, most commonly a sheriff, treasurer, clerk, coroner, assessor, superintendent of schools, surveyor or engineer, and recorder or registrar of deeds. The local prosecutor, though in legal terms a state officer, is often elected from the county. Certain other county officers, such as highway commissioners, health directors, and welfare superintendents, are more often appointed by the county board than elected. County government is mostly financed from local property taxes and state-aid funds; fees and fines constitute minor revenue sources. Occasionally counties levy sales or other nonproperty taxes or operate public enterprises that yield revenues.

Other countries

Systems of county government were adopted, with variations, in Ireland and in most of the countries settled from Britain. In Canada, however, the county system never became universal; where it exists, the county councils are generally much smaller than in England. New Zealand has had county councils since 1876. In Australia the administrative unit is generally called the shire, though the name county is used for larger areas.