In the 1840s a subsequent generation of Hegelians—the so-called “left” or “young” Hegelians—became disillusioned with Hegel’s philosophy as a result of the philosopher’s open flirtation with political reaction in the Philosophy of Right and other texts. They came to regard Hegelian idealism as merely the philosophical window dressing of Prussian authoritarianism. From a similar point of view, Karl Marx (1818–83) famously criticized his fellow Germans for achieving in thought what other peoples—notably the French—had accomplished in reality. It seemed unlikely that a philosophy such as Hegel’s could ever serve progressive political ends.

The Young Hegelians—especially Bruno Bauer (1809–82) and David Friedrich Strauss (1808–74)—vigorously criticized Hegel’s complacent defense of state religion and his monarchism, and they emphatically endorsed the ideal of a secular constitutional republic. In The Essence of Christianity and other works, Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72), another Young Hegelian, tried to substitute an “anthropological humanism” for Hegel’s speculative dialectic. Whereas Hegel’s philosophy claimed primacy for the “idea,” Feuerbach tried to show, in an Enlightenment spirit, how thinking was a derivative or second-order activity with regard to human existence. Whereas German idealism claimed that concepts form the basis of existence or actually constitute reality, Feuerbach, stressing the materialist dimension of philosophy in a manner reminiscent of high Enlightenment materialism, reversed this claim. Instead, he contended that concrete human existence is fundamental. Ideas themselves are an outgrowth or efflux of man’s nature as a sensuous, anthropological being. Feuerbach’s method of “transformative criticism,” which replaced the Hegelian “idea” with the notion of “man,” had a significant impact on the development of Marx’s philosophy.

Although a Young Hegelian during his student days, Marx soon developed significant philosophical and political differences with other members of the group. Already in his early, Rousseau-inspired work “On the Jewish Question,” Marx had emphasized that, in the constitutional state desired by his fellow Left Hegelians, political problems would merely shift to another plane. Religion and bourgeois self-absorption, Marx argued, would merely be transposed to the private sphere of civil society. Society, moreover, would still be riven by the separation between bourgeois and citizen. Still under Hegel’s influence, Marx believed that all such instances of separation or alienation must be transcended in order for human emancipation—as opposed to mere political emancipation—to be achieved.

Although the young Marx wished to supplant idealist dialectics with a sociohistorical approach, his initial deduction of the world-historical role of the proletariat was reminiscent of Hegel in its decidedly speculative and philosophical character:

A class must be formed which has radical chains, a class in civil society which is not a class of civil society, a class which is the dissolution of all classes, a sphere of society which has a universal character because its sufferings are universal, and which does not claim a particular redress because the wrong which is done to it is not a particular wrong but wrong in general.

The philosophical project of German idealism, a reconciliation of idea and reality, thought and being, remained for Marx a primary inspiration. Nevertheless, Marx believed that Hegel, because of his speculative biases, had failed to provide an adequate grounding in reality for this utopian goal; Marx’s concept of the proletariat would reveal how, practically speaking, this ideal could become reality. In 1843–44, Marx described communism in Hegelian terms as a dialectical transcendence of “alienation,” an ultimate union between subject and object:

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Western philosophy: Continental philosophy

[Communism] is the genuine resolution of the conflict between man and nature and between man and man—the true resolution of the strife between existence and essence, between objectification and self-confirmation, between freedom and necessity, between the individual and the species. Communism is the riddle of history solved, and it knows itself to be this solution.

Thereafter, Marx became convinced that communism had less to do with “realizing philosophy” than with the laws of capitalist development. Correspondingly, traces of his early Hegelianism became less visible in his later work.

Life philosophy