ancient Rome

Introduction & Top Questions
Rome from its origins to 264 bc
- Early Rome to 509 bc
  - Early Italy
  - Historical sources on early Rome
  - Rome’s foundation myth
  - The regal period, 753–509 bc
- Early centuries of the Roman Republic
  - Foundation of the republic
  - The struggle of the orders
  - The consulship
  - The dictatorship
  - The Senate
  - The popular assemblies
  - The plebeian tribunate
  - The Law of the Twelve Tables
  - Military tribunes with consular power
  - Social and economic changes
  - The Latin League
- Roman expansion in Italy
  - The Samnite Wars
  - The Pyrrhic War, 280–275 bc
The middle republic (264–133 bc)
- The first two Punic Wars
  - First Punic War (264–241 bc)
  - Second Punic War (218–201 bc)
- The establishment of Roman hegemony in the Mediterranean world
  - Roman expansion in the eastern Mediterranean
  - Roman expansion in the western Mediterranean
  - Explanations of Roman expansion
- Beginnings of provincial administration
The transformation of Rome and Italy during the Middle Republic
- Citizenship and politics in the middle republic
- Culture and religion
- Demographic and economic developments
- Social changes
- Rome and Italy
The Late Republic (133–31 bc)
- The aftermath of the victories
  - Changes in provincial administration
  - Social and economic ills
- The reform movement of the Gracchi (133–121 bc)
  - The program and career of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
  - The program and career of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus
- The republic (c. 121–91 bc)
  - War against Jugurtha
  - The career of Gaius Marius
- Wars and dictatorship (c. 91–80 bc)
  - Events in Asia
  - Developments in Italy
  - Civil war and the rule of Lucius Sulla
- The Roman state in the two decades after Sulla (79–60 bc)
  - The early career of Pompey
  - Pompey and Crassus
  - Political suspicion and violence
- The final collapse of the Roman Republic (59–44 bc)
  - Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
  - Political maneuvers
  - Civil war
  - The dictatorship and assassination of Caesar
- The Triumvirate and Octavian’s achievement of sole power
Intellectual life of the Late Republic
- Grammar and rhetoric
- Law and history
- Philosophy and poetry
The Early Roman Empire (31 bc–ad 193)
- The consolidation of the empire under the Julio-Claudians
  - The establishment of the principate under Augustus
  - The Roman Senate and the urban magistracies
  - The equestrian order
  - Administration of Rome and Italy
  - Administration of the provinces
  - Emperor worship
  - The army
  - Foreign policy
  - Economic life
  - Augustan art and literature
  - Appraisal of Augustus
  - The succession
- Growth of the empire under the Flavians and Antonines
  - The year of the four emperors
  - The Flavian emperors
  - The early Antonine emperors: Nerva and Trajan
  - Hadrian and the other Antonine emperors
- The empire in the 2nd century
  - Trend to absolute monarchy
  - Political life
  - Rome and Italy
  - Developments in the provinces
- The creation of a unified civilization
  - Urban centres
  - Latinization
  - Limits of unification
  - Cult of the emperors
  - The economic factor
  - The army
  - Cultural life
The Later Roman Empire
- The dynasty of the Severi (ad 193–235)
  - Septimius Severus
  - Caracalla
  - Macrinus
  - Elagabalus and Severus Alexander
- Religious and cultural life in the 3rd century
  - The rise of Christianity
  - Cultural life from the Antonines to Constantine
- Military anarchy and the disintegration of the empire (235–270)
  - Succession of emperors and usurpers
  - The barbarian invasions
  - Difficulties in the East
- Economic and social crisis
- The recovery of the empire and the establishment of the dominate (270–337)
  - The Illyrian emperors
  - Diocletian
  - Struggle for power
  - The reign of Constantine
- The Roman Empire under the 4th-century successors of Constantine
  - The rule of Constantine’s sons
  - The reign of Julian
  - The reign of Valentinian and Valens
  - The reign of Gratian and Theodosius I
  - Social and economic conditions
  - The remnants of pagan culture
  - The Christian church
- The eclipse of the Roman Empire in the West (c. 395–500) and the German migrations
  - Invasions in the early 5th century
  - The beginning of Germanic hegemony in the West
  - Barbarian kingdoms
  - Analysis of the decline and fall

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images & Videos

Roman Forum: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

How the Roman Empire was founded

The video thumbnail image shows an ancient drawing of a gladiator holding a shield and spear.

Map of the Italian peninsula showing Roman expansion from 298 to 201 BC, with color-coded regions indicating Roman and Latin territories, allies, and acquisitions during different periods, as well as the Kingdom of Syracuse and its allies. Key cities and regions such as Rome, Capua, and Sicily are labeled, and territorial changes from the Samnite and Punic Wars are highlighted.

Historical map of the western Mediterranean region during the Punic Wars, showing Carthaginian territory in orange and Roman territory in green around 270 BCE. Hannibal's route from Spain, across the Alps, and into Italy between 219 and 202 BCE is marked with a red line. Key battle sites with years are labeled throughout Spain, Italy, Sicily, and North Africa.

Roman war galley

Hannibal's daring strategy against Rome explained

Oil painting after Giulio Romano depicting the Battle of Zama, with Roman and Carthaginian soldiers fighting among war elephants, fallen warriors, and chaos on the battlefield.

How ancient Romans honored their dead relatives…by feeding them

Related Questions

ancient Rome

Written by

E. BadianAll

Fact-checked by

Britannica Editors

Several barbarian kingdoms were then set up: in Africa, Gaiseric’s kingdom of the Vandals; in Spain and in Gaul as far as the Loire, the Visigothic kingdom; and farther to the north, the kingdoms of the Salian Franks and the Alemanni. The barbarians were everywhere a small minority. They established themselves on the great estates and divided the land to the benefit of the federates without doing much harm to the lower classes or disturbing...

Discover the world with Britannica

Subscribe to Continue Reading

Free Trial | No Ads | Exclusive Content

Explore Subscriptions

DNA

Right

Mobile