Years of Lead

Years of Lead, a period of sociopolitical unrest in Italy that began in the late 1960s and continued through the mid-1980s, during which both far-left and far-right extremist groups carried out acts of political sabotage, kidnappings, bombings, and assassinations. It is estimated that between 1969 and 1987 about 400 people were killed and over 1,200 were injured in attacks attributed to these groups. The name “Years of Lead” (Anni di piombo) is thought to derive from the lead bullets that were used in the attacks. Alternatively some scholars have suggested that the 1981 German film Die bleierne Zeit (“The Leaden Time”), which has a plot involving terrorism and was released in the U.S. as Marianne and Julia, may have contributed to the use of the term.

Background

The Years of Lead emerged from the profound social and economic transformations that followed World War II, which saw Italy experience an “economic miracle” and shift from being a largely agricultural society to an increasingly urban and industrialized one. This transition prompted large-scale migration from rural areas to major cities, where overcrowding and inadequate urban planning intensified social tensions. At the same time, citizens put pressure on the government to provide modern housing, education, and labor rights. With these needs mostly unmet, younger generations in particular grew increasingly dissatisfied with the political and social order.

In 1968 factory workers and students began organizing themselves into protest groups to advocate for their needs and rights. The following year, initially peaceful protests became violent during an economic downturn, known as the “hot autumn,” in which factory workers went on strike and staged mass demonstrations in protest of low pay and poor working conditions. Both far-left and far-right extremist groups turned to terrorism in an effort to destabilize the Italian state, though for different reasons: Left-wing militants sought revolutionary change, while right-wing groups, using what they called a “strategy of tension,” hoped to provoke support for authoritarian rule. Far-left groups generally employed more selective tactics such as kidnapping, assassination, sabotage, and kneecapping, whereas far-right groups favored indiscriminate high-casualty bombings.

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Primary organizations and major events

During the Years of Lead, the Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse) and Front Line (Prima Linea) were among the most prominent far-left terrorist organizations. The Red Brigades’ assassinations and attacks left nearly 50 people dead between 1974 and 1988, including former prime minister Aldo Moro (who was kidnapped and held for 55 days before being murdered), and 78 wounded; Front Line was responsible for 18 deaths and 25 injuries.

On the far right, New Order (Ordine Nuovo) and the Armed Revolutionary Nuclei (Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari [NAR]), an offshoot of New Order, were among the most active neofascist terrorist organizations. New Order was linked to the December 12, 1969, bombing in the National Bank of Agriculture headquarters building located in Milan’s Piazza Fontana, as well as several other attacks. The explosion, which took the lives of 17 people and wounded 88 others, is often referenced as the start of the Years of Lead. NAR began carrying out attacks later during the Years of Lead. Most notable was the bombing of Bologna’s central railway station on August 2, 1980. Considered the deadliest act of terrorism during the Years of Lead, the explosion killed 85 people and injured more than 200. Five members of NAR were convicted of this crime; it is widely believed that Propaganda Due—a secret Masonic lodge led by fascist businessman Licio Gelli—was also involved in the bombing.

In addition to the Piazza Fontana and Bologna railway station bombings, New Order planted a bomb in a trash receptacle amid a crowd gathered at an antifascist protest in Brescia’s Piazza della Loggia on May 28, 1974. The explosion killed eight people and injured more than 100 others. On August 4 a bomb equipped with a timer was placed on an Italicus Express railway car filled with vacationing travelers. It exploded while the train was passing through a 10-mile-long tunnel near San Benedetto Val di Sambro, killing 12 people and injuring 48. Black Order (Ordine Nero), a successor organization of New Order, later claimed responsibility for the attack.

Decline

The Years of Lead gradually came to an end in the late 1980s after the introduction of new laws in 1980 and 1982 that offered reduced sentences to terrorists who cooperated with authorities or agreed to formally disassociate themselves from political violence. At the same time, legislation provided leniency to pentiti, penitent terrorists who shared information with authorities. The combined effect of these counterterrorism measures helped weaken and dismantle militant networks.

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The political landscape began shifting as well. Far-left and far-right groups lost popular support, and internal divisions weakened their organizations. Italian citizens began repudiating political violence, viewing terrorism as morally unjustifiable and strategically ineffective. By the early 1990s political sabotage, bombings, and assassinations had largely ceased.