Western colonialism

Introduction
European expansion before 1763
- Antecedents of European expansion
  - Early European trade with Asia
  - Technological improvements
- The first European empires (16th century)
  - Portugal’s seaborne empire
  - Spain’s American empire
    - The conquests
    - Spanish colonial policies
  - Effects of the discoveries and empires
    - Europe’s shift to the Atlantic
    - Changes in Europe
- Colonies from northern Europe and mercantilism (17th century)
  - The Dutch
    - Eastern pursuits
    - Western pursuits
  - The French
    - Early settlements in the New World
    - Activities in India
    - Colonization of New France
  - The English
    - English ascendancy in India
    - England’s American colonies
  - Mercantilism
    - The Spanish fleet system
    - French mercantilist activities
    - The English navigation acts
- The old colonial system and the competition for empire (18th century)
  - Slave trade
  - Colonial wars of the first half of the 18th century
    - King William’s War (War of the League of Augsburg)
    - Queen Anne’s War (War of the Spanish Succession)
    - King George’s War (War of the Austrian Succession)
  - The French and Indian War (the Seven Years’ War)
European expansion since 1763
- European colonial activity (1763–c. 1875)
  - The second British Empire
    - Loss of the American colonies
    - Conquest of India
    - Global expansion
    - Policy changes
    - Involvement in Africa
    - The growth of informal empire
    - Anticolonial sentiment
  - Decline of colonial rivalry
  - Decline of the Spanish and Portuguese empires
  - The emigration of European peoples
  - Advance of the U.S. frontier
- The new imperialism (c. 1875–1914)
  - Reemergence of colonial rivalries
    - New acquisitions
    - New colonial powers
    - Rise of new industrialized nations
    - A world economy
    - New militarism
  - Historiographical debate
    - Economic imperialism
    - Noneconomic imperialism
    - Quest for a general theory of imperialism
- Penetration of the West in Asia and Africa
  - Russia’s eastward expansion
  - The partitioning of China
    - The Opium Wars
    - Foreign privileges in China
    - The Open Door Policy
  - Japan’s rise as a colonial power
  - Partition of Africa
    - The Europeans in North Africa
    - The race for colonies in sub-Saharan Africa
- World War I and the interwar period (1914–39)
  - Postwar redistribution of colonies
  - The British Empire
    - Middle East
    - India
    - Africa
  - Overseas France
  - Axis Powers
  - The United States and the Soviet Union
- World War II (1939–45)
  - Asia
  - Middle East
  - Africa
- Decolonization from 1945
  - British decolonization, 1945–56
  - Wars in overseas France, 1945–56
  - The Sinai-Suez campaign (October–November 1956)
  - Algeria and French decolonization, from 1956
  - British decolonization after 1956
  - Dutch, Belgian, and Portuguese decolonization
  - Conclusion

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images & Videos

Map of North America in 1763 using color coding to show colonial territories: the 13 American colonies in red along the Atlantic coast, other British territory in orange across much of present-day Canada, Spanish territory in purple covering most of the southern and western regions, Russian territory in green in the northwest, and large areas of unclaimed land in white. Major bodies of water such as the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Hudson Bay are labeled.

Peter the Hermit

History of pepper in the spice trade

Cantino planisphere

Historical illustration showing Spanish conquistadors overseeing Indigenous laborers constructing buildings and carrying materials amid the ruins of Tenochtitlan, later Mexico City.

Colorful Dutch colonial buildings with ornate facades line the waterfront in the Punda district of Willemstad, Curacao, under a clear blue sky.

Oil painting by Cornelis Claesz. van Wieringen showing Spanish Armada warships with tall sails and flags off the English coast, smaller boats in the foreground, cloudy sky above.

At a Glance

Hernán Cortés's invasion of Mexico

Western colonialism summary

Western colonialism: Media

politics

Videos

History of pepper in the spice trade

History of pepper in the spice trade

Learn about black pepper (Piper nigrum): how it is produced, its history...

Video: © American Chemical Society (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

A collage featuring four colonial-era European figures in military and formal attire, a yellow map of Africa, and a vintage cartoon of imperialism in the background.

What Was the Scramble for Africa?

African colonization changed history—and the map.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The Monroe Doctrine explained

The Monroe Doctrine explained

Learn more about the Monroe Doctrine.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

How did Spain become a colonial power in America?

How did Spain become a colonial power in America?

Overview of Spain's colonial history.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Heritage Pictures/Dreamstime.com

Images

Map of North America in 1763 using color coding to show colonial territories: the 13 American colonies in red along the Atlantic coast, other British territory in orange across much of present-day Canada, Spanish territory in purple covering most of the southern and western regions, Russian territory in green in the northwest, and large areas of unclaimed land in white. Major bodies of water such as the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Hudson Bay are labeled.

American colonies

North America during the colonial period.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

Peter the Hermit

Peter the Hermit

Peter the Hermit leading the First Crusade, as depicted in Abreviamen de las...

The British Library (Public Domain)

Astrolabe

Astrolabe

Astrolabe, brass inlaid with silver, 1291; in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New...

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Edward C. Moore Collection,91.1.535a-h, www.metmuseum.org

Cantino planisphere

Cantino planisphere

The Cantino planisphere (or Cantino world map) is the earliest surviving map showing...

© Pictures From History—CPA Media Pte Ltd/Alamy

Historical illustration showing Spanish conquistadors overseeing Indigenous laborers constructing buildings and carrying materials amid the ruins of Tenochtitlan, later Mexico City.

Tenochtitlán

Indigenous enslaved people building Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, under...

© Photos.com/Getty Images

Colorful Dutch colonial buildings with ornate facades line the waterfront in the Punda district of Willemstad, Curacao, under a clear blue sky.

The Dutch in Curaçao

Standing in Curaçao's capital of Willemstad, these Dutch colonial houses are now...

© MigielFrancissen/Dreamstime.com

Wisconsin

Wisconsin

Jean Nicolet, who was sent by Samuel de Champlain to explore the Great Lakes, landing...

© North Wind Picture Archives

Oil painting by Cornelis Claesz. van Wieringen showing Spanish Armada warships with tall sails and flags off the English coast, smaller boats in the foreground, cloudy sky above.

Spanish Armada

The Spanish Armada depicted in an oil painting by Cornelis Claesz. van Wieringen,...

Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Carib

Carib

Carib fishermen, illustration from Girolamo Benzoni's La historia del Mondo Nuovo...

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (reproduction no. LC-USZ62-97211)

Sir John Hawkins

Sir John Hawkins

Sir John Hawkins, detail of a portrait by an unknown artist, 1591; in the City Art...

Courtesy of the City Art Gallery, Plymouth, Eng.

Painting of Edward Braddock and British troops in uniform advancing through dense forest, facing Native American and French fighters during the French and Indian War near Fort Duquesne.

French and Indian War

British troops under Edward Braddock near Fort Duquesne, Pennsylvania, during the...

MPI/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Antique black-and-white map of North America from the first edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica, showing historical regional names like New Britain, New England, Louisiana, New Spain, and Greenland, with detailed coastlines and labeled territories.

From the first edition

A map of European holdings in North America from the first edition of the Encyclopaedia...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of colonial southern Africa from 1884 to 1905, using color codes to show territories controlled by Britain, Portugal, and Germany at different times. The map highlights British-controlled areas in orange, Portuguese-controlled areas in purple, German-controlled areas in green, and disputed regions in red, with boundaries and key colonial regions labeled. Major features include German South West Africa, German East Africa, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Colony, and the Orange Free State.

Colonial Southern Africa, 1884–1905

European penetration into Southern Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Historical map of eastern Africa around 1914, showing the region divided among British, German, French, and Italian colonial powers. Different territories are color-coded by colonial ruler, with key locations such as British East Africa (Kenya and Uganda), German East Africa (including present-day Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi), Italian Somaliland, and French Somaliland labeled. Major lakes, rivers, and cities are also marked.

Imperial partitions of eastern Africa, c. 1914

Eastern Africa as partitioned by the imperial powers, c. 1914.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of Canada showing the exploration routes taken by various European explorers from the 16th to 19th centuries, marked with different colored and patterned lines. The routes trace paths along major rivers, lakes, the Arctic coast, and the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, illustrating efforts to find the Northwest Passage and expand fur trading. Key explorers and their paths are identified in a legend.

Colonial exploration routes in Canada

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of the present-day United States showing the routes taken by early European explorers, each route marked in a different color and labeled in the legend. Major expeditions include those of De Soto, Coronado, Jolliet and Marquette, La Salle, Escalante and Dominguez, Lewis and Clark, Pike, Smith, and Walker, with paths traversing regions from the Atlantic and Gulf coasts through the Midwest to California and the Pacific Northwest. Modern state and international boundaries are also shown for ref

Colonial exploration routes within the United States

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map showing English colonies along the eastern coast of North America in 1689

English colonies in 17th-century North America

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Historical map showing the division of Gran Colombia in 1830, with the territory divided into three color-coded departments: Cundinamarca in yellow, Quito in pink, and Venezuela in green. Dashed lines indicate disputed areas, and major cities such as Bogota, Quito, and Caracas are labeled. The map covers the region of northern South America, including present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and parts of Peru.

The division of Gran Colombia (1830)

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of the Americas in 1780 showing the Spanish and Portuguese viceroyalties. Spanish territories are shaded in green, including the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroyalty of Peru, Viceroyalty of New Granada, and Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Portuguese territory, labeled as the Viceroyalty of Brazil, is shaded in purple. Borders between Spanish and Portuguese lands are marked, with amendments from 1750 and 1778 indicated. British territory is shown in the northern part of North America. Ma

Spanish viceroyalties and Portuguese territories in the Americas, 1780

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Historical map of India from 1797 to 1805 showing British territory in 1797, territorial acquisitions from 1797 to 1805, states under subsidiary alliances, Maratha lands in 1805, the Peshwa region, and areas ruled by princes who had accepted subsidiary alliances. The map uses different colors to distinguish these regions and displays major cities, rivers, and neighboring territories.

India, 1797–1805

India, 1797–1805.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Three historical maps of India side by side show the reorganization of states and union territories since independence. The left map depicts India in 1955 with the integration of former princely states, the center map displays state boundaries after the 1956 States Reorganization Act and subsequent changes through 1999, and the right map shows India since 2000 with further administrative updates. States and provinces are shaded in orange, union territories in green, and international boundaries

India: reorganization of states and union territories since independence

Reorganization of states and union territories since independence. (Left) India in...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Hernán Cortés's invasion of Mexico

Hernán Cortés's invasion of Mexico

Hernán Cortés attacking Native peoples during his invasion of Mexico, c.1519.

© Photos.com/Jupiterimages

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