The Crucible

Writing the play

By the late 1940s and early ’50s, Miller’s reputation as one of the leading American playwrights of the post-World War II period had been established. All My Sons (1947) had been produced on Broadway, and Death of a Salesman (1949) had won a Pulitzer Prize for drama and several Tony Awards, including for best play, author, and director. A writer known for his radical views and anti-fascist and pro-communist leanings, Miller often explored social, ethical, and political questions in his works rather than purely private or domestic subjects. By about 1950 he had begun thinking about how to dramatize the atmosphere created by the American campaign against alleged communists—“the hunt for Reds,” as he later described it.

One crucial incident that made Miller pursue the idea more definitively was director Elia Kazan’s cooperation with the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)—an investigative body that probed alleged communist activities. Kazan, who was Miller’s friend and was once a member of the Communist Party, identified fellow artists as communists to HUAC, primarily to safeguard himself. Seeing how the political climate was making people capitulate, Miller felt compelled to write The Crucible. In 1952 he went to Salem and examined surviving records of the 1692 witch trial proceedings, researching testimony, accusations, confessions, pamphlets, and other material. He noticed equivalents to the contemporary political climate—friends avoiding blacklisted people, those accused confessing and implicating others in the hope of protection, and individuals cooperating with the authorities and dissociating themselves from suspected individuals under pressure, even when the truth had not been established. Drawing on these parallels, Miller used one historical event to write a drama that could reflect his own times. The author did not present historically identical events but rather compared the systems of accusation, pressure, and compliance. Miller himself was called before HUAC later, in 1956. He refused to name people and was convicted of contempt, but he appealed and won.

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Salem witch trials

Miller based The Crucible on the witchcraft trials in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692–93, a series of persecutions that he considered an echo of the McCarthyism of his day, when investigations of alleged subversive activities were widespread. In the late 17th century, Salem Village was part of a devoutly religious, theocratic, Puritan society. Witch hunts and trials had occurred in Europe since the 14th century, with witches suspected of consorting with Satan. European colonists carried this fear of witchcraft with them, and it took deep root in Salem. The village was in the middle of social unease, exacerbated by a rivalry between two leading families—the Porters and the Putnams. Religious shifts under its orthodox pastor, Samuel Parris, caused disputes among the people, with factions emerging. The general sense of unrest, worsened by political uncertainties of the times, created an atmosphere of distrust. When Parris’s daughter Betty and niece Abigail started behaving strangely, going into fits and contortions, they blamed the family’s enslaved woman, Tituba, and two others—Sarah Good and Sarah Osborn (also spelled Osborne)—for bewitching them. Gradually, hysteria mounted, with more girls and women behaving oddly and accusing others of practicing witchcraft. Informal hearings were followed up with formal trials. In the 17th century, Massachusetts treated witchcraft as a criminal offense punishable by death. By the end of the trials, 19 people had been hanged and five others had died in custody. Additionally, a man was pressed beneath heavy stones until he died.

The Second Red Scare and McCarthyism

On February 9, 1950, U.S. Republican Sen. Joseph McCarthy described in apocalyptic terms the “final, all-out battle” between communist atheists and capitalist Christians. He claimed that in just six years the number of people under Soviet influence had grown exponentially, and he warned that the United States could end up the same way if it did not root out communist “enemies from within.” McCarthy produced a list of 205 names of State Department employees who he claimed were known communists. The anticommunist campaign associated with McCarthy—marked by indiscriminate accusations, aggressive investigations, and guilt by association—came to be known as McCarthyism. His actions spread fear among Americans that Soviet operatives had infiltrated the home front to the highest reaches of government. Such a period of public fear and anxiety over the supposed rise of communist or socialist ideologies in a noncommunist state—called the Red Scare—was not new. The United States had experienced it after World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917. After World War II, hysteria gripped the country again and led to what is called the Second Red Scare (1947–54), of which McCarthyism became a prominent part.

McCarthy was not solely responsible for the rise of anticommunist sentiment, though he became its most famous face. Suspicion of communists in government and culture was already building. As a member of HUAC in 1948–50, Richard Nixon, then a young congressman, took a leading role in the investigation of Alger Hiss, a former State Department official accused of spying for the Soviet Union. Nixon’s hostile questioning of Hiss during the committee hearings did much to make his national reputation as a fervent anticommunist. As a senator, McCarthy ran his own hearings through a Senate committee and its permanent subcommittee on investigations, separate from HUAC’s hearings. During the Second Red Scare hundreds of Americans were questioned or investigated, and many lost their jobs or reputations simply on suspicion.

Main characters

Miller based most of the characters and their names on real people connected to the Salem witch trials. However, he altered certain details—such as their ages or the extent of their involvement in the trials—and reshaped people, relationships, chronology, and motives to suit his narrative. For example, the real-life John Proctor was considerably older than his fictional counterpart and did not play as pivotal a role in the historical trials.

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John Proctor: A farmer in his mid-30s, Proctor is the play’s central figure, whom Miller later characterized as an “ambiguously unblemished soul.” Proctor is an independent-minded, straightforward man who is skeptical of Reverend Samuel Parris and, later, of the claims of witchcraft. Before the play begins, he has committed adultery with Abigail Williams while she was employed at the Proctor household. Although the guilt-ridden farmer has ended the affair, marital tensions continue as his wife, Elizabeth, finds it difficult to trust him, even as he tries to atone for his transgression. Later, when Elizabeth stands accused of witchcraft, he is caught in a moral dilemma over saving his reputation by hiding the truth about Abigail or protecting his wife by divulging it and disclosing Abigail’s false allegations against her.

Elizabeth Proctor: John Proctor’s wife, Elizabeth is struggling in their strained marriage, having discovered his earlier affair with Abigail. Although they both are trying to repair the marriage, her distrust lingers. She continues with her marital and domestic responsibilities but is not a submissive wife, showing strength in dismissing Abigail. When Abigail targets her, falsely accusing her of witchcraft by using a poppet (doll) as evidence, Elizabeth again shows strength and resilience by refusing to confess and standing up to Reverend Hale. Unfortunately, when she lies in her attempt to protect her husband in court, she inadvertently harms his case. By the final act, she forgives Proctor but, in an act of love and respect, lets him make his own moral choice.

Abigail Williams: Reverend Samuel Parris’s orphaned niece, Abigail has witnessed the murder of her parents before the play opens. Having lost her employment after her illicit relationship with Proctor was discovered by Elizabeth, she is now in her uncle’s care. Her attraction to Proctor, however, has not waned, even though he resists her continued advances. Defiant of rules, rebellious in her actions, and dominant in personality, she shrewdly manipulates and strong-arms other girls to follow her lead. She becomes one of the primary accusers of witchcraft in Salem, exploiting the community’s existing divisions to her advantage. She fans the fires of the witchcraft accusations in part to further her personal aim of ruining Elizabeth.

Reverend John Hale: A firm believer in and supposed expert on witchcraft, Hale comes to Salem at the request of Reverend Samuel Parris, who has invited him to investigate whether witchcraft is behind the strange events in Parris’s household. As the investigation progresses and allegations ensnare respected members of the community, Hale starts to question the legitimacy of the proceedings against the supposed witches. He eventually realizes that the girls, including Abigail, have led the authorities astray with false claims. He denounces the court proceedings and tries to save the condemned.

Reverend Samuel Parris: Formerly a merchant in Barbados, Parris is now a minister in Salem, deeply concerned about preserving his position in the community and his material security. He complains about his salary and firewood allowance and demands the deed to the house in which he lives. His insecurity about his standing shows when his first response to his daughter, Betty, falling ill is shaped partly by fear that scandal within his household will damage his ministry. Although he initially tries to quell rumors of witchcraft, he soon supports the accusations and the court proceedings, even threatening to have the enslaved Tituba whipped unless she confesses. In the end, however, concern for his own safety and reputation makes him urge that the hangings be postponed, as he senses growing opposition to the trials and threats against his own life.

Deputy Governor Danforth: Danforth, a judge from Massachusetts, is called to adjudicate claims made against people about practicing witchcraft. He is a staunch Puritan and is fully convinced that the court is doing righteous work. He holds the declarations of the witnesses as absolute truth and refuses to budge from his verdicts, even as it becomes evident that the accused are innocent. He proceeds with the hangings of those already condemned, because he believes retracting the decision will make the court look weak and invite doubt about its judgments. His stubbornness is driven largely by pride and his refusal to admit that he could be wrong.

Mary Warren: Mary is part of Abigail’s group of girls and works as a servant for the Proctors. She is easily swayed, particularly by Abigail, but is timid; she goes to the forest with Abigail but only watches. Taking part in the witch trials gives her a new feeling of importance, but she remains afraid of Abigail and is quickly influenced by the people around her. She gives Abigail a way to frame Elizabeth when she hands Elizabeth a poppet she made in court, with a needle still in it. Mary later agrees to tell the court that the girls have been pretending, but the pressure from Abigail, the other girls, and the court is too much for her. She panics, takes back her testimony, and turns on Proctor, claiming he works with the Devil.

Tituba: She is an enslaved Black woman who works for Reverend Parris and looks after his daughter. She has allegedly led Abigail and the girls through a dance ritual in the forest, introducing them to some superstitious practices, potions, and charms. She becomes one of the first people accused after the girls are discovered in the forest—an easy target because of her low social standing and the racism prevalent in the society. Under threats and intense questioning, Tituba confesses and names others.

Rebecca Nurse: The wife of wealthy landowner Francis Nurse, Rebecca is a well-respected member of the society. A gentle lady, she is a pious Puritan but not a hard-liner. Although she is kind, warmhearted, and benevolent, she is resented by Ann Putnam, the wife of another rich landowner, Thomas Putnam, who bears a grudge against the Nurse family. Ann is likely envious of Rebecca’s many children and grandchildren, having lost seven infants of her own. Ann accuses Rebecca of killing her babies, and in the tumult of the times Rebecca is charged by the court with having murdered the babies by using supernatural powers. She, however, maintains her dignity and does not bend to the pressure of admitting to the accusation.

Plot

The play follows a four-act structure, without scene divisions. Miller wrote an additional scene for the second act, but it is usually not included in publications or performances and mostly appears in the appendix of certain editions.

Act I: The play opens in Reverend Parris’s home, with an unwell Betty lying nearly inert in bed after she has been discovered with Abigail, Tituba, and several other girls dancing in the forest. Parris is concerned that this incident will cause scandal and fuel rumors of witchcraft. When he questions Abigail, she claims that it was merely harmless amusement. However, suspicions of witchcraft mount. Abigail’s conversations with the other girls reveal that, with Tituba’s help, she had been trying to conjure a charm to hurt Elizabeth. Meanwhile, Reverend Hale arrives to investigate the goings-on, even as Proctor feels uneasy about the prospect of a witch hunt. When Abigail is questioned, she accuses Tituba of consorting with the Devil. Severely threatened, Tituba caves and not only falsely confesses to witchcraft but also names two other women. Abigail and Betty begin accusing others.

Act II: Tensions are palpable, both within the Proctor household and in the wider Salem community. The shadow of Proctor’s affair with Abigail hangs over his marriage, while more people are being accused of witchcraft. Elizabeth urges her husband to expose Abigail’s lies, but Proctor hesitates. Mary, now involved with the court, returns with a poppet she has made for Elizabeth and reports that numerous people have been accused. Hale attempts to test the Proctors’ religious commitment as doubts about them grow. When officials discover the poppet with a needle, apparently supporting Abigail’s claim that Elizabeth attacked her supernaturally, they arrest Elizabeth. Proctor decides to take Mary to court to challenge Abigail and the accusations, even if doing so means he has to reveal his adultery.

Act III: During court proceedings, Giles Corey (a farmer), Francis Nurse, and Proctor defend their wives and try to discredit the accusations, much to the chagrin of the judges. Judge Danforth is particularly riled by Proctor’s strong stance, especially when Proctor keeps up his protest to support all those accused even after his wife’s hanging is stalled because of her pregnancy. Mary testifies that the girls’ supernatural displays were pretended, but Danforth subjects her and the others to intense questioning. Proctor admits his affair with Abigail to establish her motive for accusing Elizabeth. Elizabeth, unaware of his confession, denies the affair in an attempt to protect his reputation. Abigail and the girls then turn on Mary, pretending that she is attacking them. Terrified, Mary retracts her testimony and accuses Proctor, who is arrested. Hale criticizes the proceedings and leaves the court.

Act IV: Months have passed. Twelve people have been hanged, with Rebecca, Proctor, and Martha Corey (Giles Corey’s wife) now awaiting execution. Meanwhile, Abigail has stolen Parris’s savings and fled Salem. Hale, now convinced that the proceedings are unjust, urges prisoners to falsely confess to save their lives. With the trials having lost public support, Parris suggests that the executions should be postponed, which Danforth refuses, fearing that doing so would undermine the court and cast doubt on the verdicts that the court has pronounced. Proctor initially agrees to confess but refuses to incriminate others. When officials demand his signed confession for public display, he tears it up, choosing death rather than sacrificing his integrity. Elizabeth refuses to persuade him otherwise, recognizing that he has recovered his sense of moral worth, and Proctor goes to execution with Rebecca.

The title

Initially copyrighted as Those Familiar Spirits, the play was renamed The Crucible by Miller. The word crucible refers to a heat-resistant vessel in which materials are heated, refined, and melted, often to form something new. It also means a severe test or ordeal. In Miller’s play the Salem witch trials become a metaphorical crucible in which characters undergo intense personal and moral pressures, and they must decide whether to protect themselves, accuse others, or follow their consciences. This testing has been interpreted as a process that exposes, and sometimes reshapes, the characters’ moral convictions, especially those of John and Elizabeth Proctor and Reverend Hale. All three undergo intense suffering and emerge with greater moral awareness and understanding of themselves. The references in the play to fire, heat, and burning also conjure a crucible, likely as the image of hell. Abigail says her passion burns like a fire, which is the crucible through which she gains experience.

Themes

Fear and hysteria: In the play the witchcraft accusations spread rapidly through Salem as fear and suspicion overwhelm reason. Fear operates at both an individual level, as seen in Proctor’s reluctance to reveal his affair with Abigail, and a communal level, spreading from person to person almost like an infection. The trials create an atmosphere in which accusations are believed with little scrutiny, confessions are coerced, and those who question the proceedings risk becoming suspects themselves. Collective hysteria sets in, and Miller used this to explore how fear can lead to manipulation and persecution.

Individual conscience and social conformity: The play explores the conflict between an individual’s convictions and the beliefs and demands of the community. It shows how a controlling society can be intolerant of individuals with different views or those who challenge established norms and practices. Characters such as Proctor and Rebecca face pressure to confess to crimes they have not committed or to implicate others. When Proctor ultimately refuses to endorse a false confession, even at the cost of his life, he shows the importance of personal choice and the right to resist a domineering community.

Guilt and responsibility: Miller used the play to examine what guilt does to a person. Proctor’s guilt over his affair with Abigail influences his decisions throughout the play, initially making him reluctant to expose her dishonesty. When he eventually admits his affair and refuses to implicate innocent people, his character undergoes a development: He moves from the guilt that weighs on him toward wider responsibility for others in the community. Even Abigail’s actions are partly motivated by an attempt to hide her guilt, and Hale’s sense of guilt burdens him, prompting him to decry the court proceedings.

Power and authority: The play also examines what happens when too much power rests in too few hands and explores how religious and judicial authority can be misused to suppress dissent and maintain control. That authority rests on fear, and it is easily turned to personal ends. Parris is concerned with protecting his position, while Danforth’s rigid insistence on the court’s authority makes him unwilling to reconsider its judgments. Abigail and others also exploit the accusations and the power they have over the narrative to acquire influence or pursue personal grievances, demonstrating how power can corrupt and serve both institutional and individual interests.