Russell’s paradox

Russell’s paradox, statement in set theory, devised by the English mathematician-philosopher Bertrand Russell, that demonstrated a flaw in earlier efforts to axiomatize the subject.

Russell found the paradox in 1901 and communicated it in a letter to the German mathematician-logician Gottlob Frege in 1902. Russell’s letter demonstrated an inconsistency in Frege’s axiomatic system of set theory by deriving a paradox within it. (The German mathematician Ernst Zermelo had found the same paradox independently; since it could not be produced in his own axiomatic system of set theory, he did not publish the paradox.)

Frege had constructed a logical system employing an unrestricted comprehension principle. The comprehension principle is the statement that, given any condition expressible by a formula ϕ(x), it is possible to form the set of all sets x meeting that condition, denoted {x | ϕ(x)}. For example, the set of all sets—the universal set—would be {x | x = x}.

Discover how ordinary objects work, and expand your understanding of the familiar.

SIGN UP

" height="20" alt="HEW Logo">

Thank you for signing up!"

Back to homepage

By clicking "Sign Up", you consent to the Britannica Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.

It was noticed in the early days of set theory, however, that a completely unrestricted comprehension principle led to serious difficulties. In particular, Russell observed that it allowed the formation of {x | x ∉ x}, the set of all non-self-membered sets, by taking ϕ(x) to be the formula x ∉ x. Is this set—call it R—a member of itself? If it is a member of itself, then it must meet the condition of its not being a member of itself. But if it is not a member of itself, then it precisely meets the condition of being a member of itself. This impossible situation is called Russell’s paradox.

The significance of Russell’s paradox is that it demonstrates in a simple and convincing way that one cannot both hold that there is meaningful totality of all sets and also allow an unfettered comprehension principle to construct sets that must then belong to that totality. (Russell spoke of this situation as a “vicious circle.”)

Set theory avoids this paradox by imposing restrictions on the comprehension principle. The standard Zermelo-Fraenkel axiomatization (ZF; see the Click Here to see full-size tabletable) does not allow comprehension to form a set larger than previously constructed sets. (The role of constructing larger sets is given to the power-set operation.) This leads to a situation where there is no universal set—an acceptable set must not be as large as the universe of all sets.

A very different way of avoiding Russell’s paradox was proposed in 1937 by the American logician Willard Van Orman Quine. In his paper “New Foundations for Mathematical Logic,” the comprehension principle allows formation of {x | ϕ(x)} only for formulas ϕ(x) that can be written in a certain form that excludes the “vicious circle” leading to the paradox. In this approach, there is a universal set.

Explore Britannica Premium!

The trusted destination for professionals, college students, and lifelong learners.

SUBSCRIBE