National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning

National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 26, 2014, ruled unanimously (9–0) that President Barack Obama’s appointments of three commissioners to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) in January 2012 were invalid under the recess appointments clause of the U.S. Constitution, which empowers the president “to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.” Until National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning the court had never ruled on the meaning of the recess appointments clause.

Background

On December 17, 2011, the U.S. Senate, then controlled by the Democratic Party, adopted by unanimous consent (a procedure whereby a motion is considered passed if no senator objects to it) a resolution requiring it to convene “for pro forma sessions only, with no business conducted,” approximately once every three days between December 20, 2011 and January 23, 2012. (Pro forma sessions of either house of Congress are typically brief—some lasting only seconds—and require the presence of only one senator or representative to formally convene and adjourn the chamber.) The resolution had been necessitated by the refusal of the Republican-controlled House of Representatives to pass a resolution permitting the Senate to adjourn for more than three days, a power it holds under the adjournments clause of the Constitution (“Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting”). By thus effectively preventing the Senate from going into recess (an adjournment of three days was considered too short to constitute a recess), the House had intended to prevent the president from using his recess-appointment power to place in office nominees who had been opposed by Senate Republicans, including nominees for two vacant positions on the five-member NLRB.

In order to circumvent the Republicans’ strategy, the Obama administration adopted the view that, despite the pro forma sessions, the Senate was actually in recess for the entire December–January period, because it had expressly provided that it should conduct no business during that time. Accordingly, on January 4, 2012, one day after the creation of a third vacancy on the NLRB (with the expiration of an existing board member’s term), Obama invoked the recess appointments clause to appoint Sharon Block, Richard Griffin, and Terence Flynn as new NLRB members.

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The NLRB is an independent federal agency whose functions include hearing labour disputes and resolving them in quasi-judicial proceedings. In February 2012 a three-member panel of the NLRB affirmed the ruling of an administrative law judge that Noel Canning, a bottling company in Washington state, had committed an unfair labour practice by refusing to sign and execute a collective-bargaining agreement it had reached with the union representing its production employees. The company appealed the board’s decision to the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, arguing that the NLRB had lacked a quorum (of three members) at the time of its vote, because the appointments of Block, Griffin, and Flynn had been invalid under the recess appointments clause. The company’s complaint rested on its contention that, because the Senate had been in actual session, however briefly, during each of the pro forma sessions it had scheduled, Obama’s appointments had taken place during a three-day adjournment, not a genuine recess.

In a ruling issued in January 2013, the District of Columbia Circuit agreed that the appointments were invalid, but on different grounds: it held that, in the recess appointments clause, the term “the Recess of the Senate” refers only to breaks between formal, enumerated, typically yearlong sessions of Congress (“intersession recesses”) and not also to breaks that may occur within those formal sessions (“intrasession recesses”). Because the Senate had stipulated that its second formal session in the 112th Congress would begin on January 3, 2012, Obama’s appointments had taken place during an intrasession recess and were therefore invalid. The appeals court further held that the phrase “Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate” refers only to vacancies that arise during “the Recess” in which the appointments are made, not to any vacancies that may happen to exist during that recess. Obama’s appointments were consequently invalid for the additional reason that the vacancies they filled predated the recess in which the appointments were made (the third vacancy arose one day before the start of the recess in which it was filled). The NLRB then appealed to the Supreme Court, which granted certiorari in view of conflicting decisions in similar cases by other lower courts. Oral arguments were heard on January 13, 2014.

Majority and concurring opinions

In an opinion written by Justice Stephen Breyer, the court held unanimously (9–0) that Obama lacked the constitutional authority to appoint the three commissioners. A smaller majority (5–4), citing consistent historical practice since the founding era, held that the term “the Recess of the Senate” applies to intrasession as well as to intersession recesses, provided that the recess is of sufficient length. The court confirmed that a recess of three days is not long enough to trigger the recess-appointment power, as the adjournments clause suggests (because it presupposes, in the court’s words, that “a 3-day break is not a significant interruption of legislative business”). But nor is a recess of four to nine days long enough, because “we have not found a single example of a recess appointment made during an intra-session recess that was shorter than 10 days.” Although the court acknowledged a few examples of recess appointments made during intersession recesses of less than 10 days, those cases were anomalous “when considered against 200 years of settled practice.”

Again citing historical practice, the same majority also held that the phrase “Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate” refers to vacancies that exist during the recess, not to vacancies that arise during the recess. The broader interpretation, the court argued, also comports with the purpose of the recess appointments clause, which “is to permit the President to obtain the assistance of subordinate officers when the Senate, due to its recess, cannot confirm them.” In contrast, the narrower interpretation “would prevent the President from making any recess appointment that arose before a recess, no matter who the official, no matter how dire the need, no matter how uncontroversial the appointment, and no matter how late in the session the office fell vacant.”

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Finally, the 5–4 majority declared that, “for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business.” Although there was often only one senator present, the Senate did have the capacity to conduct business during the pro forma sessions, because it could have passed a unanimous consent resolution—and in fact it did pass such a resolution during its second pro forma session, on December 23, 2011. Furthermore, although the Constitution states that the Senate (and the House) cannot conduct business without a quorum (consisting of a simple majority of members), “Senate rules presume that a quorum is present unless a present Senator questions it.” Thus, the pro forma sessions of the Senate were genuine sessions, and Obama’s appointments took place during a three-day recess, which was too short to trigger his authority under the recess appointments clause. The majority consequently affirmed the appeals court’s ruling that the appointments were invalid, though it rejected the lower court’s reasoning.

Breyer’s opinion was joined by Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Elena Kagan, Anthony Kennedy, and Sonia Sotomayor. Justice Antonin Scalia—joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts, Jr., and Justices Samuel A. Alito, Jr., and Clarence Thomas—filed an opinion concurring in the judgment only. Scalia’s concurrence endorsed the appeals court’s view that the appointments were invalid because the recess appointments clause applies only to intersession recesses and only to vacancies that arise during intersession recesses.

In May 2012 Flynn announced his resignation from the NLRB, effective in July. Also in July Obama withdrew the nominations of Block and Griffin in exchange for a promise by Republican senators not to block a confirmation vote on their successors. (The agreement was part of a deal between Democrats and Republicans in the Senate to avoid rule changes that would have drastically limited the Republicans’ ability to filibuster Obama’s nominations to executive and judicial offices. The rule changes were nevertheless adopted in November 2013.) Four new members of the NLRB (including two named by Republicans) and one returning member were duly confirmed by the Senate on July 30, 2012.