NORAD

NORAD, binational military organization involving the United States and Canada. Established in 1957, with a formal agreement signed in 1958, NORAD is tasked with providing aerospace warning and control—and, since 2006, maritime warning—for the defense of North America. It is headquartered at Peterson Space Force Base in Colorado and maintains regional bases in Alaska (Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson), Manitoba (Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg), and Florida (Tyndall Air Force Base). NORAD’s commander is a U.S. military officer, and the deputy commander is a Canadian military officer, but both are appointed by and accountable to both countries’ governments.

NORAD, a product of the Cold War, was until the early 2000s primarily focused on external threats posed by rival state actors. Since the United States recognized that its defense strategy could not exclude Canadian territory, partnering with Canada allowed the creation of a truly continental defense structure against foreign threats, especially the Soviet Union. Canada’s aim was not only to bolster its own defense but also to assert its sovereignty against the United States. Through its “defence against help” strategy, Canada saw NORAD as a means to prevent unilateral territorial encroachment by its powerful southern neighbour.

The September 11, 2001, attacks in the United States had a significant effect on NORAD’s mission and operations. Following the terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., NORAD’s defense activities turned inward with Operation Noble Eagle, a domestic military operation that aimed to protect strategic sites, such as cities and crucial infrastructures, and to escort suspicious aircraft. These attacks also led to the expansion of air alert sites, from which armed and ready fighter jets could take off at any moment; the number of these sites had declined from 26 at the fall of the Soviet Union to 7 by September 11, 2001. Soon thereafter, the number of alert sites increased to more than 30, though it has since been reduced.

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Despite NORAD enduring the test of time and the end of the Cold War, American and Canadian views and priorities for homeland defense have not always aligned. Their strategies notably diverged on the question of ballistic defense systems. Although NORAD was, from its founding, mandated with the aerial defense of the continent, its operation did not include countermeasures against incoming ballistic missiles beyond detecting such threats. Antiballistic initiatives, such as U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan’s short-lived Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI; often referred to as the Star Wars initiative), were solely U.S projects.

NORAD’s relevance, as well as the American dedication to NORAD’s binational framework, was called into question in October 2002 with the United States’ creation of the U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM), whose official mandate overlapped with that of NORAD in many respects. Since then, the commander of NORAD has also held the position of commander of USNORTHCOM. Canada followed suit by creating a similar integrated command of its own, known as Canada Command from 2006 to 2012, after which it merged with other commands to form the Canadian Joint Operations Command (CJOC). Despite these developments, both countries remain committed to NORAD’s existence and in 2006 renewed their underlying agreement without expiration.