Judiciary Act of 1801

Judiciary Act of 1801, U.S. law, passed in the last days of the John Adams administration (1797–1801), that reorganized the federal judiciary and established the first circuit judgeships in the country. The act and the ensuing last-minute appointment of new judges (the so-called “midnight judges”) were decried by the incoming president, Thomas Jefferson, and his Republican allies as an attempt by the outgoing president and his Federalist allies to retain their party’s control of the judiciary by packing it with their supporters. The act was repealed in 1802.

Passage and controversy

In the months after the Federalists lost the election of 1800, but before Jefferson took over the White House, the Federalist-controlled Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1801 and the Organic Act for the District of Columbia. Along with other provisions, the laws reduced the size of the U.S. Supreme Court from six justices to five and eliminated the justices’ circuit-court duties by creating 16 new judgeships for six judicial circuits. In general, the laws created a number of new court-related offices, which the outgoing president, John Adams, proceeded to fill mostly with members of his own party.

At the time, the newly created District of Columbia consisted of two counties, Washington (the present-day area of Washington, D.C.) and Alexandria (which is now Alexandria, Virginia). On March 2, 1801, Adams nominated 23 justices of the peace in Washington county and 19 in Alexandria county. After the Senate confirmed these appointments on March 3, Adams signed the official commissions, not finishing until late into the night of his last day in office (hence the group came to be known as the midnight judges). Secretary of State John Marshall, who had just been named chief justice of the Supreme Court, affixed the great seal of the United States to the commissions, and that same evening his brother, James Marshall, delivered some of them to the new justices in Alexandria, who ultimately served their terms in office. But none of the 23 justices in Washington county received their commissions before Adams left office at noon on March 4.

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When Jefferson took office, he discovered the signed, sealed, but as yet undelivered commissions. He reappointed the six Republicans who had been on Adams’s list, as well as six of the Federalists, but refused to name the remaining 11 men. Most of the Federalists who did not receive their commissions accepted their fate passively, but not William Marbury, a Federalist leader from Maryland. Marbury went to court to force the Jefferson administration to deliver the commission, without which he could not serve in office. The resulting case led to one of the Supreme Court’s most important decisions, Marbury v. Madison (1803). Writing for the majority, Marshall held that the court could not issue a writ of mandamus compelling Madison to deliver Marbury’s commission, as Marbury had requested, because the act that authorized the court to issue such writs (the Judiciary Act of 1789) was in fact unconstitutional and therefore invalid. While technically a victory for the president, the ruling asserted a significant power of the judiciary by establishing the doctrine of judicial review.

Repeal and the Judiciary Act of 1802

Jefferson sought to abolish the new courts and, in the process, eliminate the judges. In January 1802 John Breckinridge of Kentucky, a strong supporter of Jefferson, introduced a bill in the Senate to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801. After intense debate the Repeal Act narrowly passed the upper chamber, 16–15, in February; the House of Representatives, where the Republicans enjoyed a large majority, enacted the Senate bill without amendment in March.

Congress then passed the Judiciary Act of 1802 in April 1802, increasing the number of circuits from three to six, with each Supreme Court justice assigned to only one, where he would preside with the local district judges on circuit twice a year. In addition, the new law provided for only one term of the Supreme Court each year, to begin on the first Monday of every February, thus eliminating the court’s traditional summer session. This provision, however, provoked much criticism, in part because it entailed that the court would not meet again until February 1803, 10 months after the 1802 act was passed. Critics also claimed that the Republicans had reduced the Supreme Court’s schedule to one term because they feared that the court would have found the Repeal Act unconstitutional at its scheduled summer session starting in June.

Chief Justice John Marshall doubted the constitutionality of the repeal but recognized that he could not sway the opinion of a majority of justices. When a specific challenge did reach the court in Stuart v. Laird (1803), the court, in an opinion by Justice William Paterson, affirmed the constitutionality of the repeal. Thus, what had seemed so grave a question at the time passed quickly into obscurity.

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