Italian law

…like those of Poland and Italy do not even contain the “unless” clause and prescribe only that an agent’s power of attorney must be granted with the formalities prescribed for the contract that is to be entered into by the agent.

The medieval Italian cities enacted statutes dealing with the collection and distribution of the assets of debtors, especially merchants, who had absconded or fraudulently caused insolvency. Such bankrupts (rumpentes et falliti) were subjected to severe penalties, and their estates were liquidated. In addition, medieval Spanish law restored…

The Italians created a sophisticated system of bills of exchange used partly for the transfer and exchange of money, partly (by means of endorsement) for payment, and partly (by discounting) for credit purposes. They also invented bankruptcy as a method for dealing equally with an insolvent…

In France, Germany, and Italy and the other countries subject to a civil-law system, a notarized copy of the constitution is filed at the local commercial tribunal, and proof is tendered that the first members of the company have subscribed the whole or a prescribed fraction of the company’s…

…southern France and in central Italy. The Christian church, which became the official Roman imperial church after 381 ce, developed its own canon law, courts, and practitioners and followed the general outline of later Roman legal organization. Because of its success among the invaders, the church was in a position…

…division still formally exists in Italy, it is no longer of practical importance. In Latin America the fused profession is general. Notaries as a separate specialized branch of the profession exist, however, in most civil-law countries.

…in some countries, such as Italy, though in the United States they are rare. French universities typically use both written and oral examinations. Some English and overseas Commonwealth universities hold oral examinations to confirm or resolve doubtful results on written papers or as a prerequisite to the award of first…

In Italy and France the prosecutor is a member of the judiciary. Both prosecutors and judges receive the same training, and both may move from one role to the other in the course of their advancement in the civil service. In Germany, although the prosecutor is…

…the Germanic tribal traditions in Italy and France, and somewhat later in Germany, though not all elements of the Germanic procedure disappeared. By contrast, in Scandinavia indigenous procedure adapted itself and was able to resist displacement by foreign law.

, France and Italy), the arguments by the parties may be augmented by an officer representing the Ministry of Justice. If a court reverses a lower court ruling, it generally does not substitute its own judgment for the erroneous judgment below but merely annuls the erroneous judgment and…

…of such countries as France, Italy, and Spain, an admission made before the court is a form of evidence that leads to conclusive proof binding upon the court. But admissions made out of court are subject to free evaluation by the judge and do not exclude further evidence.

…is a French national; in Italy some Italian link must be shown by a nonnational for jurisdiction to be exercised; and in Germany and Austria, by contrast, the location of property often determines jurisdiction.