Ian Hacking

Ian Hacking (born February 18, 1936, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada—died May 10, 2023, Toronto, Ontario) was a Canadian philosopher whose historical analyses of the natural and social sciences as well as mathematics greatly influenced 20th- and 21st-century philosophical discourse.

Hacking was the only child of Harold and Margaret (née MacDougall) Hacking. He grew up in Vancouver and attended the University of British Columbia, where he earned a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and physics (1956). He then studied moral sciences at the University of Cambridge in England, earning bachelor’s (1958), master’s (1962), and doctoral (1962) degrees in that field. He later taught philosophy at a variety of institutions, including the University of British Columbia (1964–69); the University of Cambridge (1969–74); Stanford University (1975–82); the University of Toronto (1982–2004), where he was appointed university professor in 1991; and the Collège de France (2000–06), where he became the first Anglophone to hold a permanent position (as chair of the philosophy and history of scientific concepts).

Unlike the writings of most analytic philosophers, Hacking’s works often call upon the past, utilizing history as a lens through which modern concepts might be understood and interpreted. This approach can be traced through Hacking’s extensive list of publications, which cover a broad range of topics including the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mathematics, and the philosophy of language.

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In his first book, Logic of Statistical Inference (1965), Hacking took a philosophical approach to an analysis of statistics by examining the fundamental principles behind statistical reasoning. He also evaluated the ways in which statisticians utilize these principles, offering solutions to problems that may arise within such work. In another work, The Emergence of Probability (1975), Hacking examined the historical development of probability theory and the widespread application of statistics in various domains in recent centuries—which transformed the way in which people conceive of natural events and reality in general. As Hacking stated in an interview in 2012, “We now live in a universe of chance, and everything we do—health, sports, sex, molecules, the climate—takes place within a discourse of probabilities.” He continued this theme in The Taming of Chance (1990), in which he suggested that the increased accessibility of statistics and probability from the 17th century onward gradually made apparent certain previously unnoticed patterns of human behaviour. He cited suicide statistics from the early 1800s as an instance of this shift, as events previously attributed to chance began to show correlations among certain external factors—including, in the case of suicide, age, sex, marital status, geographic location, and methods.

Hacking took the idea of the taming of chance a step further in his analysis of the realm of the social sciences. He hypothesized that, once aspects of human nature came to be understood in statistical terms, human nature itself was conceived by means of a metaphorical bell curve. On that basis there developed a sharp contrast between the average, which came to be equated with the normal, and what were considered outliers. This transformation in turn resulted in a new emphasis on normality and a compulsion to normalize, particularly in the field of mental health. In addition, new “categories” of people emerged as psychologists diagnosed their patients, a practice Hacking discussed in his journal article “Making Up People” (1986) and in his book Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (1995).

Not only do new categories of mental health come into being—but also, Hacking suggested, labels are continually created in all realms of human existence. Once assigned a label (by oneself or by another), an individual inherits all of the social and cultural characteristics associated with it. This influence of the label upon the self is the basis of a notion that Hacking called “dynamic nominalism.” Moreover, labels are not fixed—they can be modified by people, just as people (or their sense of self) tend to be modified by the labels attached to them. This feature is referred to by Hacking as “the looping effect,” an endless cycle of label-person interaction. The creation and modification of types of people is also broached in The Social Construction of What? (1999), in which Hacking set out to address the complexities surrounding the concept of social construction.

Hacking received many honours and distinctions, including the Molson Prize (2001) and the Killam Prize (2002), both awarded by the Canada Council for the Arts; the Gold Medal for Achievement in Research (2008), awarded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada; and the Holberg Prize (2009), awarded by the government of Norway.

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