How do Afro-Asiatic languages form plural nouns?

Afro-Asiatic languages employ a diverse array of strategies to form plural nouns, reflecting a complex morphological history that often distinguishes between singular, dual, and plural forms.12

Pluralization is primarily achieved through the following methods:

• Affixation: Nouns may be pluralized by adding specific suffixes, such as -uu, -w, or -n.1
• Internal Inflection: Plurals can be formed by altering the internal structure of the word, such as changing vowels within the stem. For example, in the Amazigh language, the singular agadir (wall) becomes the plural igudar.1
• Broken Plurals: This process involves a combination of internal stem changes and affixes to create plural forms. In Semitic languages like Ge'ez, this is seen in nəgus (king) becoming nägäs-t (kings). Some broken plurals are highly systematic, such as the CaCāCiC- configuration used for four-consonant stems in Arabic.12
• Consonant Repetition: Some Chadic and Cushitic languages utilize the repetition of final consonants, often combined with vowel changes, to indicate plurality.1

Additionally, some languages exhibit gender polarity, where a noun changes its gender when shifting from singular to plural (e.g., a masculine singular noun becoming a feminine plural).1