How did technological changes affect social classes in Marx's theory?

In Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism, technological advancements are central drivers of social change. Marx argued that a society’s "mode of production"—defined by its technology and division of labour—determines its class structure.12

As technology evolves, it creates "revolutions" in the forces of production, which in turn force changes in social relations. For example, when new technology (such as the steam shovel) becomes too expensive for individual workers to own, those workers lose their independence and must sell their labor to those who can afford the machinery. This process creates a fundamental antagonism between two primary classes:1

• The Bourgeoisie: The ruling class that owns the means of production and monopolizes the benefits of technological modernization.13
• The Proletariat: The working class, who, lacking property, become dependent on wages and are effectively reduced to "appendages of the machine".12

Marx posited that when existing social institutions fail to adapt to these technological shifts, the resulting contradictions lead to intense class struggle, eventually prompting the rise of a new class to challenge the existing order.24