How did lowercase letters develop from ancient Roman capital letters?

The development of lowercase letters from ancient Roman capital letters involved a gradual evolution through various scripts. Ancient Roman capital letters, known as square capitals and rustic capitals, were all majuscule (uppercase) and contained within horizontal lines.12

Over time, these formal scripts evolved into more cursive forms for everyday use. Roman cursive capitals, used for notes and business records, were written with greater speed, leading to simpler and more flowing letter shapes. This cursive style, along with uncial and half uncial scripts, contributed to the emergence of lowercase letters. Uncial script, a rounded majuscule form, and half uncial script, which developed more cursive characteristics and introduced ascenders and descenders, were particularly influential.1345

The modern lowercase alphabet, known as minuscule, was significantly shaped by Carolingian minuscule. This script, perfected in the late 8th century, provided a clear and manageable alphabet with consistent ascenders and descenders, forming the basis for present-day Roman type.67