How Holy (and Roman) Was the Holy Roman Empire?

Voltaire, it seems, was at least partially right when he famously quipped that the Holy Roman Empire was neither “holy” nor “Roman,” for the medieval empire was indeed neither until at least the 12th century. Although the term Holy Roman Empire is commonly used to identify the empire from its inception on December 25, 800, this title did not actually appear until 1254 in the wake of the recovery of ancient Roman law and the...