Fathers of Confederation

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Fathers of Confederation, traditionally the 36 men who represented British North American colonies at one or more of the conferences—Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island (September 1864), Quebec (October 1864), and London (1866–67)—that lead to the creation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. Although Sir John A. Macdonald is commonly viewed as the chief architect of Confederation, academics, journalists, and heritage bodies have argued for the prominence of other figures such as George Brown and Sir George-Étienne Cartier. The definition is sometimes expanded to include those who were instrumental in the creation of Manitoba, the bringing of British Columbia and Newfoundland into Confederation, and the establishment of Nunavut.

Charlottetown Conference

The Charlottetown Conference (September 1–9, 1864) was intended to be a discussion concerning a possible union of the Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island). After representatives from the Province of Canada (consisting of present-day Ontario and Quebec) requested to be included, the discussion expanded to include a potential union of all of British North America. Newfoundland also asked to take part, but its request came too late for the colony to organize a delegation. The conference was noteworthy for the lavish banquets and balls that accompanied the actual discussions. At the close of the proceedings, the delegates—notably Macdonald, Brown, and Cartier—agreed in principle to the proposed union and scheduled another conference the following month in Quebec city.

Quebec Conference

At the Quebec Conference (October 10–27, 1864), delegates, including representatives from Newfoundland, discussed the specific details of the broad proposal that was agreed upon at Charlottetown. The result was the 72 Resolutions, which formed the basis of the Canadian constitution. After Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland rejected the resolutions, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada were the only remaining supporters of union. Delegates from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, however, faced significant opposition back home, though both provinces ultimately passed the resolutions in 1866.

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London Conference

At the London Conference (December 4, 1866, to February 1867), 16 delegates representing Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada met in England to draft the British North America Act. The act, which was based on the 72 Resolutions, made minor concessions to the Maritime Provinces and added provisions for the future inclusion of other colonies and territories. It also reconstituted the two regions of the Province of Canada, Canada East and Canada West, as Quebec and Ontario, respectively. Despite the lobbying efforts of Joseph Howe of Nova Scotia, who headed an antiunion delegation, the British North America Act easily passed through British Parliament and was signed into law by Queen Victoria on March 29, 1867. The Dominion of Canada was formally established on July 1, 1867.

Creation of Manitoba

Louis Riel, the leader of the Red River Rebellion, is often cited as Manitoba’s Father of Confederation. In 1869 the Canadian government negotiated an agreement to purchase Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company. The deal angered Métis of the territory’s Red River Settlement (or Red River Colony), who were not consulted. Under the leadership of Riel, they seized control of Fort Garry (now Winnipeg), declared a provisional government, and sent delegates to Ottawa to negotiate the Red River Settlement’s entry into the Dominion of Canada.

In May 1870 the Canadian government passed the Manitoba Act, creating the new province of Manitoba, which included the Red River Settlement. The act also granted Métis title to their lands along the Red and Assiniboine rivers with another 1.4 million acres for their descendants and guaranteed French and Catholic linguistic and religious rights. Despite the victory, many Métis soon left the area following a deluge of settlers. Riel was denied amnesty for leading the uprising, and he fled to the United States. However, on March 10, 1992, the Parliament passed a unanimous resolution that named Riel as founder of Manitoba.

British Columbia and Confederation

The figure perhaps most associated with British Columbia’s entry into Confederation is Amor De Cosmos (original name William Alexander Smith). As a member of the Legislative Council of British Columbia, he introduced a resolution as early as March 1867 calling for the province’s inclusion in Canada. In May 1868 De Cosmos helped establish the Confederation League, the primary goal of which was to raise public support for union with Canada. In 1870 he took part in the “Great Confederation Debates,” which resulted in the Legislative Council’s voting to send a delegation to Ottawa to negotiate the province’s entry into Confederation. Although some believed the terms were too generous—the Canadian government agreed to assume British Columbia’s debt and build a railroad to the west coast—the deal easily passed Parliament and was approved by Victoria on May 16, 1871. British Columbia officially became part of Canada on July 2, 1871.

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Newfoundland and Confederation

Facing severe economic difficulties, Newfoundland accepted the establishment of a commission government on February 16, 1934, to help in its recovery. The government was structured with a governor at its head who acted on the advice of six commissioners appointed by the British government. After World War II reinvigorated the local economy, Newfoundlanders were prompted to appeal for the reestablishment of responsible government. The British government formed the National Convention in 1946, which included 45 elected delegates from Newfoundland and Labrador, to study the forms of government that would replace the commission. Two main factions emerged: those who advocated for responsible government, led by Peter Cashin, and those who wanted union with Canada, led by Joseph (“Joey”) Roberts Smallwood.

The convention scheduled a referendum on Newfoundland’s political future for June 3, 1948. Vigorous campaigning ensued between the Confederate Association, the Responsible Government League, and the Economic Union Party (which supported annexation by the United States). The first referendum was inconclusive, as the responsible government group won but did not receive a clear majority. Supporters of union with Canada won the second referendum, held on July 22, 1948, with 52.3 percent of the vote. An amendment to the British North America Act (referred to as the Newfoundland Act) finalized the arrangements, and Newfoundland became a Canadian province on March 31, 1949; its name was changed to Newfoundland and Labrador in 2001.

Nunavut created

Canada’s Inuit communities made their case for self-governance in the eastern Arctic in the 1970s following cases made by Nisga’a in northwest British Columbia, the Innu and Cree of Quebec, and Dene in the western Arctic. With the help of the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (ITC)—an organizing committee of Inuit founded in 1971 by Tagak Curley and later called the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami—the Inuit community in 1976 submitted its first proposal to the Canadian government, which included a land claim as well as a call for the establishment of a new territory. The plan was later withdrawn owing to a lack of community input and the complexity of the provisions put forth. The Northwest Territories Inuit Land Claims Commission submitted a simplified version in 1977, but discussions stalled. The group subsequently disbanded and was replaced by the Nunavut Land Claims Project (NLCP).

In 1979 the ITC drafted a claim that blended provisions from earlier proposals, including the division of the Northwest Territories. A majority of voters (56 percent) supported the proposal in a plebiscite held in 1982. The Tungavik Federation of Nunavut was formed and took over duties from the NLCP in negotiating the land claims. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement passed a 1992 plebiscite with 84.7 percent. The Parliament approved the Nunavut Act on January 10, 1993, with an implementation deadline of April 1, 1999, at which time Nunavut (“Our Land” in Inuktitut) became Canada’s third territory.

Mothers of Confederation

Scholars have noted the absence of women in accounts of the events that lead to the founding of Canada. For example, the wives and daughters of politicians who gathered in 1864 participated in the social events that surrounded discussions. They were, as one commentator notes, “allies in building the nation.” The sources these women left behind—letters (Anne Nelson Brown), diaries (Mercy Coles), biographies (Lady Agnes Macdonald)—added perspective on how decisions were made. These women are collectively known as “Mothers of Confederation,” and efforts have been made to integrate their experiences in the narrative.

An earlier version of this entry was published by The Canadian Encyclopedia .