Declaration of Helsinki

Declaration of Helsinki, formal statement of ethical principles published by the World Medical Association (WMA) to guide the protection of human participants in medical research. The Declaration of Helsinki was adopted in 1964 by the 18th WMA General Assembly, at Helsinki. Although not without its controversies, it has served as the standard in medical research ethics.

The influence of the declaration is far-reaching. Although not a legally binding document, it has been codified into the laws that govern medical research in countries across the world and has served as a basis for the development of other international guidelines. As the declaration was expanded and made more prescriptive, it became more controversial, which caused some organizations to alter some of its standards or abandon it entirely.

Origins and early revisions

Before World War II, no formal international statement of ethical principles to guide research with human participants existed; researchers were left to rely on organizational, regional, or national policies or their own personal ethical guidelines. After atrocities were found to have been committed by medical researchers in Germany who used involuntary unprotected participants drawn from Nazi concentration camps, the 1947 Nuremberg Code was established. That was followed in 1948 by the WMA’s Declaration of Geneva, a document outlining every physician’s ethical duties, which included pledges to focus on the health of the patient and not to use medical knowledge to violate human rights. Both documents influenced the development of the Declaration of Helsinki. The initial declaration, which was less than 2,000 words long, focused on clinical research trials. Notably, it relaxed conditions for consent for participation, changing the Nuremberg requirement that consent is “absolutely essential” to instead urge consent “if at all possible” and to allow for proxy consent, such as from a legal guardian, in some instances.

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The declaration has been revised several times. The first revision, conducted in 1975, expanded the declaration considerably, increasing its depth, updating its terminology, and adding concepts such as oversight by an independent committee. The second (1983) and third (1989) revisions were comparatively minor, primarily involving clarifications and updates in terminology. The fourth (1996) revision also was minor in scope but notably added a phrase that effectively precluded the use of inert placebos—drugs with no active ingredients used to test the safety and efficacy of other drugs in clinical trials or provide a patient with mental relief—when a particular standard of care existed.

Fifth revision

The fifth revision—which was adopted by the WMA General Assembly in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 2000—was substantial, and many of the changes made were viewed as controversial in the medical community. The fifth revision reorganized the structure of the document and expanded it by creating a nine-paragraph introductory section (which broadened the scope of the declaration to include scientists as well as physicians) and sections describing various principles of medical research. It augmented the oversight powers of ethical review committees and adjusted the language related to placebos in medical studies. Debate ensued about revisions to the declaration, with some medical practitioners arguing for stronger language and commentary addressing clinical trials and others proposing to limit the document to basic guiding principles. Although a consensus was not reached, the WMA approved the revision.

One of the more controversial aspects of the fifth revision was the addition of paragraph 29, which called for weighing various aspects of a new treatment against currently known best medical practices. That paragraph differed very little in meaning from a similar passage in the fourth revision: with regard to placebos, the fifth revision replaced the words “inert placebo” with “placebo, or no treatment.” That change, however, became the focal point of a debate involving the ethical use of placebo-controlled trials that had coalesced within the medical community during the 1990s.

One of the major causes stoking that debate occurred in 1997, with the publication of a paper by American physicians Peter Lurie and Sidney Wolfe. They argued that providing sick patients with placebos instead of available proven-effective medical treatment could cause harm, especially in cases involving disease transmission, such as the transmission of HIV between a mother and child. The opposing view held that when risk of harm is low and there are no local standards of care (as is often the case in developing countries), placebo-controlled trials are ethically acceptable, especially given their potential benefits for future patients.

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Paragraph 30, which called for every patient in the study be given access to the best health care methods identified by the study, was also considered controversial. The language of the passage implied that standards of medical care in developed countries should apply to any research with human beings, including research conducted in developing countries. In developing countries, per capita health care expenditures are much lower, and some medical practitioners argued that the rule placed too great a burden on researchers and their resources after conclusion of the study. The language appeared to mandate the provision of the same level of care to the patients in the study afforded to those in developing countries, which may require massive investments of staffing and capital. Some practitioners maintained that achieving equivalent levels of care would not be practical and would keep sponsoring organizations from funding placebo-related research in developing countries, whereas others argued that it would be unfair to keep the benefits of a medical treatment from the very patients whose participation helped develop them.

So great was the tension that the WMA issued clarifications to paragraphs 29 and 30 in 2002 and 2004, respectively. In paragraph 29 the WMA noted that use of placebos was considered acceptable in situations where the reasons for doing so were either “scientifically compelling” or where the medical condition under study was not serious and the patient would not be placed at increased risk of serious or irreversible harm. In paragraph 30 the WMA called for detailing “post-trial access arrangements” for ethical review committees, which would presumably comment on their feasibility.

Debate continued on those issues, and cross-national divisions emerged. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration rejected the fifth revision in 2007 because of its restrictions on the use of placebo conditions and eliminated all references to the declaration, replacing it with the Good Clinical Practice guidelines, an alternate internationally sanctioned ethics guide. In addition, the National Institutes of Health training in research with human participants no longer refers to the declaration, and the European Commission refers only to the fourth revision.

Later revisions

The sixth and seventh revisions of the declaration, approved by the WMA in 2008 and 2013, respectively, introduced clarifications that were viewed as minor by comparison. In general, the sixth revision reinforced the declaration’s long-held emphasis on prioritizing the rights of individual research participants above all other interests, including considerations for a patient’s medical information confidentiality and a patient’s right to self-determination. The seventh revision added new rules designed to protect patients in research studies, including provisions to compensate people who have been harmed by their participation in medical research and to expand their access to beneficial treatments that result from the study.