Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee

Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (6–3) on July 1, 2021, that state voting restrictions that disproportionately burden racial minority groups do not necessarily violate Section 2 of the federal Voting Rights Act (VRA) of 1965, despite that law’s prohibition, in its subsection (a), of any electoral “standard, practice, or procedure…which results in a denial or abridgement of the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color.” The Court’s decision, representing the consensus of its six-member conservative majority, upheld two voting provisions in the state of Arizona, one a policy requiring that ballots cast in the wrong precinct be discarded in their entirety (the “out-of-precinct [OOP] policy”) and the other a law prohibiting the collection and delivery of ballots by third parties other than certain election officials, mail carriers, caregivers, and family members. Although both provisions disproportionately burdened racial and ethnic minorities in the state—particularly Native Americans, Hispanic Americans, and African Americans—the Court asserted that such disparate effects were acceptable because the burdens imposed were insignificant in themselves and were sufficiently compensated for by the existence of other voting opportunities for the affected groups. In the Court’s view, Section 2 of the VRA, notwithstanding the unqualified language of subsection (a), did not ban disproportionate burdens on racial minorities outright but merely required that a state’s voting system as a whole be “equally open” to members of those groups, as provided in the law’s subsection (b). The Court’s three-member liberal minority, joined by voting rights advocates across the country, sharply criticized the ruling for essentially legalizing forms of voter discrimination that the VRA had been designed to prevent. In their view, the Court’s decision in Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee, together with its earlier ruling in Shelby County v. Holder (2013)—which voided a provision of the VRA that had enabled the federal government to prevent certain states from adopting racially discriminatory voting laws—had greatly weakened the VRA, rendering it incapable of eliminating many real-life instances of voter discrimination, such as the Arizona provisions in question.

The case arose in 2016, when the Democratic National Committee (DNC) and certain associated organizations filed suit against Arizona’s attorney general and secretary of state in federal district court, alleging, among other complaints, that: (1) the state’sOOP policy and its law against third-party ballot collection and delivery (H.B. 2023) violated Section 2 of the VRA, as amended in 1982, because of the provisions’ disproportionate burdens upon racial minorities; and (2) H.B. 2303 also violated Section 2 and the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, because it was enacted with discriminatory intent. (In the wake of a Supreme Court decision in 1980 that interpreted Section 2 as prohibiting only those voting provisions adopted with discriminatory intent, Congress significantly amended the section in 1982 to ban provisions with discriminatory results, irrespective of whatever purpose the provisions were designed to serve.) After the district court upheld both the OOP and H.B. 2303, the case was heard by a three-member panel of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Although the panel affirmed the district court’s ruling, a subsequent en banc sitting of the appeals court reversed the panel’s judgment and enjoined both provisions as violations of Section 2, also finding that the district court had “clearly erred” in its determination that H.B. 2303 had not been adopted with discriminatory intent. In April 2020 the defendants filed a writ of certiorari (a petition for review) with the Supreme Court, which was eventually granted in October. Oral arguments were heard on March 2, 2021.

In its majority opinion, written by Justice Samuel A. Alito, Jr., the Court noted that Brnovich was the first case in which it had been asked to consider how Section 2 applies to “generally applicable time, place, or manner voting rules”—which are set by the states, within limits established by the Constitution and Congress—rather than to alleged instances of racially discriminatory vote dilution, which diminishes the power of racial minorities to elect candidates of their choice and is usually accomplished through racial gerrymandering of electoral districts (see also voter suppression). (Legal challenges to discriminatory time, place, and manner rules under Section 2 increased after Shelby County v. Holder because, absent a new amendment to the VRA, the federal government could no longer block discriminatory voting rules before they were enacted and used in at least one election.) For that reason, the Court argued, a “fresh look at the statutory text is appropriate.” Recalling Congress’s 1982 amendment of the VRA, the Court regarded the “results” test in subsection (a) as insufficient on its own to establish a violation of Section 2 because, in the Court’s view, subsection (b) explicitly sets out “what must be shown to prove a §2 violation”—namely, that the rules in question prevent racial minorities from participating fully in the electoral process. The relevant text of subsection (b) states:

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A violation of subsection (a) is established if, based on the totality of circumstances, it is shown that the political processes leading to nomination or election in the State or political subdivision are not equally open to participation by members of a class of citizens protected by subsection (a) in that its members have less opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice.

In the Court’s reading, then, no “denial or abridgment of the right…to vote on account of race or color” amounts to a violation of Section 2 unless, considering the “totality of circumstances,” it so limits the voting opportunities of racial minorities as to make participation in elections less open to them than to other citizens.

The Court then identified and elaborated on the kinds of “circumstances” that would be appropriate to consider in assessing whether rules such as the OOP and H.B. 2023 violate Section 2, presenting them as a set “guideposts” for future assessments rather than as an “exhaustive list” of relevant factors. The guideposts were: (1) the “size of the burden imposed,” which bears consideration only if it is greater than the usual effort or inconvenience involved in voting; (2) the extent to which the burden “departs from” voting practices that were legal and standard in 1982, when Congress amended Section 2; (3) the size of any disparity in the burden imposed on different racial groups; (4) the range of different voting opportunities provided by a state’s electoral system considered as a whole; and (5) the strength and validity of the state interest served by the voting rule in question, the presumption being that rules that serve strong state interests—such as preventing voter fraud—are less likely than other rules to violate Section 2.

Having taken these circumstances into account in its assessment of the legality of the OOP and H.B. 2023, the Court concluded that neither provision violated Section 2 and that H.B. 2023 had not been adopted with discriminatory intent.

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In her lengthy dissent, which was joined by the Court’s two other liberal justices, Justice Elena Kagan accused the Court’s majority of adopting a cramped (needlessly narrow) and twisted reading of the text of Section 2, in disregard of Congress’s obvious intent in drafting the section’s original and amended versions; in defiance of the purposefully broad language of subsection (a); and in opposition to decades of judicial precedent in the federal courts, including the Supreme Court itself. Kagan faulted the majority for misrepresenting subsection (b) and its reference to the “totality of circumstances” as a limiting condition on alleged violations of Section 2—one that, in Alito’s words, “explains what must be shown to establish a §2 violation”—rather than as a requirement, in keeping with the intended breadth of subsection (a), that courts give due consideration to the fact that an “ordinary-seeming” and facially (on its face) neutral voting rule “can interact with local conditions—economic, social, historical—to produce race-based voting inequalities.” Having thus misread subsection (b), Kagan argued, the majority proceeded to impose its own “made-up” and “extra-textual” limits on the application of Section 2, effectively rewriting the law by introducing restrictions “it would have liked Congress to enact.” For example, the Court’s conclusion that Section 2 does not apply to voting rules that impose burdens no greater than the usual effort or inconvenience involved in voting—even if those burdens fall (in Kagan’s words) “highly unequally on members of different races”—is unsupported by the text of Section 2, which nowhere states that minor or insignificant burdens fall outside its scope. Kagan also disputed the majority’s contention that voting rules that were common in 1982, the year in which Section 2 was amended, are relevant to determining whether a current voting rule is discriminatory, noting that the entire purpose of the amended section was (and continues to be) to eliminate existing rules with discriminatory effects. “Section 2 was meant to disrupt the status quo, not to preserve it—to eradicate then-current discriminatory practices, not to set them in amber,” she insisted. Kagan likewise rejected the Court’s conclusion that deficits in voting opportunities for racial minorities may be legal under Section 2 as long as other opportunities are made available.

Finally, Kagan dismissed the majority’s rationale for holding that discriminatory voting rules serving a strong state interest can be consistent with Section 2 even in cases where other, nondiscriminatory means would accomplish the same goal. A conclusion to the contrary, the majority stated, would “invalidat[e] a great many neutral voting regulations” and would inappropriately transfer regulatory authority over elections from the states to the federal courts. Kagan noted that Section 2 would apply only to voting rules that were shown to be discriminatory in practice; that the VRA was a legitimate exercise of Congress’s constitutional power “to replace state and local election rules that needlessly make voting harder for members of one race than for others”; and that, in ruling as it did, the majority had effectively endorsed the long-standing practice of rationalizing racially discriminatory voting laws by emphasizing the nonracial interests they supposedly serve.