A Farewell to Arms

A Farewell to Arms, third novel by American writer Ernest Hemingway, published in 1929. Its depiction of the existential disillusionment of the “Lost Generation” echoes his early short stories and his first major novel, The Sun Also Rises (1926). A Farewell to Arms is particularly notable for its autobiographical elements.

(Read Britannica’s article “War Stories: 13 Modern Writers Who Served in War.”)

Plot summary

The plot of A Farewell to Arms is fairly straightforward. While working with the Italian ambulance service during World War I (1914–18), the American lieutenant Frederic Henry meets the English nurse Catherine Barkley. Although she still mourns the death of her fiancé, who was killed in the war, Catherine encourages Henry’s advances. After Henry is badly wounded by a trench mortar shell near the Isonzo River in Italy, he is brought to a hospital in Milan, where he is eventually joined by Catherine. She tends to him as he recovers. During this time their relationship deepens. Henry admits that he has fallen in love with her. Catherine soon becomes pregnant by Henry but refuses to marry him.

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Guess the Book by its Chapter Titles

After the hospital superintendent, Miss Van Campen, discovers that Henry has been hiding alcohol in his hospital room, he is sent back to the front. Henry discovers that during his absence morale on the front had significantly worsened. During the Italian retreat after the disastrous Battle of Caporetto (1917), he deserts the army, just barely escaping execution by Italian military police. Back in Milan, Henry searches for Catherine. He soon learns that she has been sent to Stresa, some 95 miles (153 km) away. Henry journeys to Stresa by train. Once there, he reunites with Catherine, and the couple flee Italy by crossing the border into neutral Switzerland.

Upon arrival, Henry and Catherine are arrested by Swiss border authorities, who decide to allow Henry and Catherine—masquerading as architecture and art students seeking “winter sport”—to stay in Switzerland. The couple pass several happy months in a wooden house near Montreux. Late one night Catherine goes into labor. She and Henry take a taxi to the hospital. A long and painful labor ensues, and Henry wonders if Catherine will survive. Sadly, their son is stillborn. Soon after, Catherine begins to hemorrhage and dies with Henry by her side. He tries to say goodbye but cannot. He returns to their hotel alone, in the rain.

Analysis

In A Farewell to Arms, Hemingway provided a realistic and unromanticized account of war. He wanted readers to experience the events of the novel as though they were actually witnessing them. Using a simple writing style and plain language, he omitted inessential adjectives and adverbs, rendering the violence of the Italian front in sparing prose. To give readers a sense of immediacy, Hemingway used short declarative clauses and made frequent use of the conjunction and. Many years after the publication of A Farewell to Arms, Hemingway explained that he used the word for its rhythmic quality: it was, he said, a “conscious imitation of the way Mr. Johann Sebastian Bach used a note in music when he was emitting a counterpoint.” The same language animates the protagonist’s voice, thoughts, and dialogue. The effect is similarly lifelike. Hemingway authentically replicated the way soldiers speak in times of war—profanities and all. (At the request of the publisher, Hemingway’s editor, Maxwell Perkins, replaced the profanities with dashes. Hemingway reportedly reinserted the words by hand in a few first-edition copies of the novel, one of which he gave to Irish novelist James Joyce.)

Although Hemingway referred to the novel as his Romeo and Juliet, the tone of A Farewell to Arms is lyric and pathetic rather than tragic. Grief turns the hero away from, rather than toward, a deeper examination of life. Hemingway’s depiction of Henry reflects the pathos of the Lost Generation, whose members came of age during World War I. The conclusion of the novel—in which Catherine and the baby die, leaving Henry desolate—is emblematic of the Lost Generation’s experience of disillusionment and despondency in the immediate postwar years.

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Interpretations of the title vary. The novel may take its name from a 16th-century poem by the English dramatist George Peele. In Peele’s lyric poem, conventionally called “A Farewell to Arms (To Queen Elizabeth),” a knight laments that he is too old to bear arms for his queen, Elizabeth I:

His helmet now shall make a hive for bees;
And, lovers’ sonnets turn’d to holy psalms,
A man-at-arms must now serve on his knees,
And feed on prayers, which are Age his alms:
But though from court to cottage he depart,
His Saint is sure of his unspotted heart.

Peele’s poem reflects some of the core themes of Hemingway’s novel: duty, war, and masculinity. However, there is no evidence to suggest that Hemingway knew of the poem’s existence, let alone took its title. As some scholars noted, Hemingway selected the title relatively late in the publishing process, while performing manuscript revisions. These scholars argued that the title—and, by extension, Peele’s poem—had no influence on the writing or shaping of the novel.

Another interpretation of the novel’s title stresses the dual meaning of the word arms. In deserting the Italian army, the protagonist bids farewell to “arms” as weapons. When Catherine dies, he bids farewell to the loving “arms” of his mistress. This interpretation of the title blends the two major themes of the novel: war and love.

Alternate endings

In 1958 Hemingway told George Plimpton of The Paris Review that he “rewrote the ending to [A] Farewell to Arms, the last page of it, thirty-nine times before I was satisfied.” He claimed that he had trouble “getting the words right.” Historians have since determined that Hemingway actually wrote 47 endings to the novel. The endings range in length from a few sentences to several paragraphs. Some endings are bleaker than others. In one particularly grim ending, titled “The Nada Ending,” Hemingway wrote, “That is all there is to the story. Catherine died and you will die and I will die and that is all I can promise you.” In another ending, Henry and Catherine’s baby survives. This ending—appropriately titled “Live-Baby Ending”—was the seventh conclusion Hemingway wrote.

Hemingway sought advice on the ending from F. Scott Fitzgerald, his friend and fellow author. Fitzgerald suggested Hemingway end the novel with the observation that the world “breaks everyone,” and those “it does not break it kills.” In the end, Hemingway chose not to take Fitzgerald’s advice. Instead, he concluded the novel with these last lines:

But after I had got [the nurses] out and shut the door and turned off the light it wasn’t any good. It was like saying good-bye to a statue. After a while I went out and left the hospital and walked back to the hotel in the rain.

Publication and reception

Hemingway wrote and revised A Farewell to Arms in 15 months. The work was first published serially in the United States in Scribner’s Magazine between May and October 1929. Charles Scribner’s Sons reportedly paid Hemingway $16,000 for the rights—the most the magazine had ever paid for a serialized work. In the late 1920s, Scribner’s Magazine had an average annual circulation of about 70,000. Despite attempts by the publisher to censor Hemingway’s work, many subscribers canceled their subscriptions to the magazine. They cited (among other things) Hemingway’s bad language and “pornographic” depictions of premarital sex as reasons for terminating their subscriptions. Authorities in Boston outright banned the magazine. On June 21, 1929, The New York Times reported :

The June issue of Scribner’s Magazine was barred from bookstands...by Michael H. Crowley, Superintendent of the Police, because of objections to an installment of Ernest Hemingway’s serial, ‘A Farewell to Arms.’ It is said that some persons deemed part of the installment salacious.

Scribner’s defended Hemingway’s work, claiming “the ban on the sale of the magazine in Boston is an evidence of the improper use of censorship which bases its objections upon certain passages without taking into account the effect and purpose of the story as a whole.” The publisher argued that the work was neither immoral nor “anti-war.”

A Farewell to Arms first appeared as a novel in the United States in September 1929. Scribner’s ordered an initial print run of about 31,000 copies. Hemingway numbered and signed 510 first-edition copies. The novel was Hemingway’s first best seller; it sold some 100,000 copies in its first 12 months. Unlike the serial, the novel enjoyed a generally warm reception. A New York Times review described it as “a moving and beautiful book.” In November 1929 the London Times Literary Supplement deemed it “a novel of great power” and Hemingway “an extremely talented and original artist.” The American novelist John Dos Passos—Hemingway’s contemporary and sometime friend—called the novel “a first-rate piece of craftsmanship by a man who knows his job.”

In Italy, news of the novel’s publication was not received well. Many Italians resented Hemingway’s (highly accurate) depiction of the Italian retreat after the Battle of Caporetto. The fascist regime under Benito Mussolini banned the novel. Some scholars speculated that the ban was instituted in part because of a personal conflict between Hemingway and Mussolini. Years before, Hemingway had interviewed Mussolini for The Toronto Daily Star. In an article published in 1923, Hemingway referred to Mussolini as “the biggest bluff in Europe.” A Farewell to Arms was not published in Italy until 1948.

Since its publication in 1929, Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms has been translated into many languages, including Arabic, Italian, Japanese, and Urdu. A number of revised editions have been published. Notably, in July 2012, Scribner’s published an edition of the novel containing all 47 alternative endings, in addition to pieces from early drafts.

Autobiographical elements

A Farewell to Arms has been praised for its realistic depiction of war. Its realism has often been attributed to personal experience: the novel is informed in no small part by Hemingway’s own wartime service. Although Hemingway spent less time and had a more limited role in World War I than his protagonist, the resemblance between his experience and Henry’s is nonetheless striking.

During World War I, Hemingway worked as an ambulance driver for the American Red Cross. Like Henry, he served on the Italian front and suffered a severe injury on the Austro-Italian front. On the night of July 8, 1918, while handing out chocolate and cigarettes to soldiers, Hemingway was struck by fragments of an Austrian mortar shell. He was wounded in the foot, knee, thighs, scalp, and hand. In all, he absorbed more than 200 pieces of shrapnel—by his own count, 237.

In the aftermath of the explosion, the injured Hemingway reportedly carried a man to safety. (He was subsequently awarded a medal of valor for this action, among several others.) Hemingway was ultimately taken to a Red Cross hospital in Milan, where he met and fell in love with a nurse named Agnes von Kurowsky. At age 26, von Kurowsky was seven years his senior. Although she did not fully reciprocate his love, von Kurowsky was fond of Hemingway and enjoyed his company. In a diary entry on August 25, 1918, she wrote that Hemingway “has a case on me, or thinks he has. He is a dear boy and so cute about it….” Once Hemingway began to recover from his injuries, the pair attended operas and horse races together. In September 1918, about two months after Hemingway’s injury, von Kurowsky volunteered for service in Florence during an influenza outbreak. She and Hemingway maintained correspondence. In her letters, von Kurowsky called Hemingway “Kid.” He called her “Mrs. Kid” and “the missus.”

Von Kurowsky’s feelings for Hemingway were never as deep as his affection for her. She broke off the relationship in a letter dated March 7, 1919, not long after Hemingway returned to his home in Oak Park, Illinois. In the letter, von Kurowsky explained that she was “still very fond” of Hemingway but “more as a mother than as a sweetheart.” According to his sister, Marcelline, Hemingway vomited after reading the letter. Years after Hemingway’s death in 1961, his son, Jack, called the loss of von Kurowsky the great tragedy of his father’s early life.

Von Kurowsky almost undoubtedly served as the source for the heroine in A Farewell to Arms. When asked about Hemingway’s novel in 1976, she said, “Let’s get it straight—please. I wasn’t that kind of girl.” She objected to the insinuation that she and Hemingway were lovers, insisting that Catherine Barkley was an “arrant fantasy” and that the affair in the hospital was “totally implausible.”

Legacy

A Farewell to Arms was one of the most widely read war novels of the 20th century. It was published during the period between World War I and World War II, a time when war novels were very popular in the United States and around the world. A Farewell to Arms was published in the same year as German writer Erich Maria Remarque’s magnum opus Im Westen nichts Neues (All Quiet on the Western Front), which details the daily horrors of war on the Western front in laconic understatement. Remarque’s characters, like Hemingway’s, are remarkably disillusioned with the war. Hemingway and Remarque together set the precedent for future war novelists Evelyn Waugh, Kurt Vonnegut, Joseph Heller, Tim O’Brien, Sebastian Faulks, and others whose work expresses a cynical attitude toward war and violence.