Carbon offset

Carbon offset, any activity that compensates for the emission of carbon dioxide (CO₂) or other greenhouse gases (measured in carbon dioxide equivalents [CO₂e]) by providing for an emission reduction elsewhere. Because greenhouse gases are widespread in Earth’s atmosphere, the climate benefits from emission reductions regardless of where such cutbacks occur. If carbon reductions are equivalent to the total carbon footprint of an activity, then the activity is said to be “carbon neutral.” Carbon offsets can be bought, sold, or traded as part of a carbon market.

The use of the term offset to refer to emissions compensated for by decreases at another facility has been used since the late 1970s as part of the U.S. Clean Air Act, in which new emissions in high-pollution areas were allowed only where other reductions occurred to offset the increases. In addition, the popularization of the term carbon offset in the first decade of the 21st century accompanied growing concern about CO₂ as an atmospheric pollutant. Examples of projects that produce carbon offsets include:

1. Renewable energy projects, such as building wind farms that replace coal-fired power plants.
2. Energy-efficiency improvements, such as increasing insulation in buildings to reduce heat loss or using more-efficient vehicles for transportation.
3. Destruction of potent industrial greenhouse gases such as halocarbons.
4. Carbon sequestration in soils or forests, such as tree-planting activities.

Carbon-offsetting process

Carbon offsets can be bought and sold as part of compliance schemes, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol or the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS; a regional carbon market where European countries can trade carbon allowances to meet regional emission-reduction goals). A benefit of carbon offsetting within such compliance schemes is that it enables emission reductions to occur where costs are lower, leading to greater economic efficiency where emissions are regulated. The Kyoto Protocol requires parties in the developed world to limit greenhouse gas emissions relative to their emissions in 1990. Under the Kyoto Protocol, emissions trading in a so-called carbon market may help them meet their targeted limit: a party can sell an unused emissions allowance to a party above its limit. The protocol also allows carbon offsets to be traded. Kyoto Protocol parties can obtain offsets through a mechanism called joint implementation (JI), where one party develops an emission-reduction or emission-removal project in another country where emissions are limited. Parties can also obtain offsets through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) for projects in developing countries, where emissions are not otherwise limited.

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Consumers and businesses may also voluntarily buy carbon offsets to compensate for their emissions. Large purchasers of offsets include organizers of major events such as the Olympic Games, which can aspire to be carbon neutral, and companies such as Google, HSBC Holdings PLC, and IKEA. The voluntary market in offsets is largely unregulated, though several international standards have been developed to assess their quality. For example, in March 2006 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed standard 14064 on greenhouse gas accounting, verification, validation, and accreditation of standard-setting bodies. In addition, the Gold Standard registry, created as a tracking database for the CDM and the JI, was developed in 2003 by a consortium of nonprofit sponsors to certify carbon projects and track credits.

Structural challenges

The carbon-offsetting process faces a number of challenges, including the quantification of carbon benefits and verification that a party’s greenhouse gas reduction is indeed occurring. In order to be effective, a carbon offset must be additional—that is, the project must reduce greenhouse gas emissions more than would have occurred in the absence of the offset. Thus, the carbon benefits of each project need to be determined relative to what would have occurred under a business-as-usual scenario. Furthermore, the permanence of the emission-reduction project needs to be taken into account. For example, a tree planted in one year to offset carbon should not be removed in the future. Carbon offset projects can also create leakage, where a project causes impacts that unintentionally increase emissions elsewhere, such as when deforestation is simply relocated rather than avoided.

In 2000 the market for carbon offsets was small, but by the end of the first decade of the 21st century it represented nearly $10 billion worldwide, most of which was associated with offsets transacted through the UNFCCC Clean Development Mechanism.