automaton

automaton, any of various mechanical objects that are relatively self-operating after they have been set in motion. The term automaton is also applied to a class of electromechanical devices—either theoretical or real—that transform information from one form into another on the basis of predetermined instructions or procedures (see automata theory).

Types of automatons

In general, automatons are designed to arouse interest through their visual appeal and then to inspire surprise and awe through the apparent magic of their seemingly spontaneous movement. The majority of automatons are direct representations of creatures and plants or of kinetic aspects of natural phenomena. Imitations of such natural phenomena as the moving water of streams and waterfalls, for instance, can be simulated with twisted rods of glass. A mechanical device can be used to make a flower open its petals to imitate blooming or to make a figure walk. Some purely capricious automatons consist of complete scenes in which caricature personages perform in a humorous manner. Not all automatons, however, are mimetic. Some offer only visual fascination, such as spinning roundels set with gems to make flashing patterns of colour and light.

Automatons can be classified into two groups: those that are ancillary to a functional article and those that in themselves are fanciful objects, solely for decoration and pleasure. Clocks and watches, which lend themselves to displays of motion, are the most common type of functional object with automatons. Through the ages, most automatons have been objects of fancy that are purely decorative in concept and function. The most complicated are the androids: figures in human form that can be made to walk about, play music, write, or draw. They are mostly of fairly large size and intended for public display. At the other end of the scale are exquisitely finished pocket-sized objects such as trick pistols that were the specialty of the Rochat brothers, Ami-Napoléon and Louis, both of whom were among the finest 19th-century designers and craftsmen of automatons.

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Automatons in the ancient world

Few examples of automatons made prior to the 16th century remain, but numerous documents record their onetime existence. Among the earliest references is to a wooden model of a pigeon constructed by Archytas of Tarentum (flourished 400–350 bce), a Greek friend of Plato. The bird was apparently suspended from the end of a pivoted bar, and the whole apparatus revolved by means of a jet of steam or compressed air. More complete information about other devices is found in the writings of Heron of Alexandria (flourished 1st century ce), who described devices actuated by water, falling weights, and steam.

Accounts of automatons in China date from as early as the 3rd century bce, during the Han dynasty, when a mechanical orchestra was made for the emperor. By the Sui dynasty, in the 6th and 7th centuries ce, automatons had become widespread, and a book titled Shuishi tujing (“Book of Hydraulic Elegancies”) was published. In the Tang period, from the 7th to the 10th century ce, automatons continued to be popular in imperial circles. There are records of flying birds, an otter that caught fish, and figures engaged in numerous activities ranging from a monk begging to girls singing. After the Yuan period (1279–1368), the creation of automatons seems to have waned.

In the Islamic world there were a number of inventors active from about the 9th century. Best-documented are the water-operated automatons, many of moving peacocks, invented and made by al-Jazarī, who worked in the 13th century for princes of the Artuqid dynasty in Mesopotamia.

References to automatons devised by western Europeans in the Middle Ages cite such distinguished names as Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus, both of whom are credited with constructing androids—Bacon, a talking head, and Albertus, an iron man. Decorative mechanical objects for ecclesiastical use are illustrated by the Gothic architect Villard de Honnecourt in his famed sketchbook (1235).

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Automatons in the Renaissance

In the early 16th century there was renewed interest in the manufacture of automatons, largely stemming from the influence of Eastern examples brought to Europe through trade with the Orient and the translation from the ancient Greek of the 1st-century-ce writings on mechanical objects by Heron of Alexandria. Intricate fountains emphasizing spectacular and trick effects became highly fashionable among the wealthy. Notable among them were the mid-16th-century fountains and waterworks built for the gardens of the Villa d’Este at Tivoli, near Rome.

With the use of coiled tempered-steel spring from the mid-15th century, a truly portable source of motion became available in the Renaissance. It was used, for instance, in some of the nefs, table ornaments in the form of sailing ships. Largely dating from the second half of the 16th century, nefs probably originated in the gold- and silversmithing centres of Germany, namely Augsburg and Nürnberg, with such important masters of mechanical construction and the jeweler’s craft as Hans Schlottheim. Among the most celebrated nefs is the “Ship of Charles V” (Musée de Cluny, Paris).

Automatons since the Renaissance

It was in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the most intricate automatons made their appearance. Typical are the objects made by the Rochat brothers, who specialized in the manufacture of miniature singing birds. The mechanical songbirds were devised to appear suddenly from beneath hinged panels in snuffbox tops or to operate in cages that were suspended so that a clock under the base was visible. Perhaps the most intriguing of small-size automatons were the so-called magician boxes. A disk engraved with a question is inserted in a slot in the box, upon which the tiny figure of a magician comes to life and points with his wand at a space where the answer appears.

Among the more elaborate mechanical devices popularized in the 18th century were tableaux mécaniques, or mechanical pictures. These framed painted landscapes, in which figures, windmills, and so forth spring to life by means of hidden clockwork, remained popular through the 19th century. A tableau designed for Mme de Pompadour (1759; Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, Paris) is a prime example of this type of automaton. Closely related to the tableaux mécaniques are mechanical theatres, the most extravagant of these having been built in the gardens of Hellbrunn, near Salzburg, Austria. Consisting of 113 hydraulically operated figures, it was assembled between 1748 and 1752.

With the exception of a few works by Peter Carl Fabergé (died 1920), the production of costly artistic automatons virtually ceased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries because of the diminishing number of skilled craftsmen as well as rich patrons to support them. Collecting, therefore, is reserved for only the most wealthy. This expensive hobby is still served by the dealer who locates increasingly rare examples of historic automatons and by a small corps of highly skilled artisans whose dearly priced services keep the objects in working order.