stress fracture

stress fracture, any overuse injury that affects the integrity of bone. Stress fractures were once commonly described as march fractures, because they were reported most often in military recruits who had recently increased their level of impact activities. The injuries have since been found to be common in both competitive and recreational athletes who participate in repetitive activities, such as running, jumping, marching, and skating.

Stress fractures result from microdamage that accumulates during exercise, exceeding the body’s natural ability to repair the damage. Microdamage accumulation can cause pain, weaken the bone, and lead to a stress fracture. The vast majority of stress fractures occur in the lower extremities and most commonly involve the tibia or fibula of the lower leg or the metatarsals or navicular bone of the foot or ankle, respectively. Treatment of a stress fracture depends on both the site and the severity of the injury.

Etiology

During activities that involve repeated weight-bearing or repeated impact, repetitive loading cycles, bones are exposed to mechanical stresses that can lead to microdamage, which occurs primarily in the form of microscopic cracks. When given adequate time for recovery, the body has the ability to heal microdamage and further strengthen bones through remodeling and repair mechanisms. The healing mechanisms depend on many factors, including hormonal, nutritional, and genetic factors. Under certain conditions, however, such as starting a new training program or increasing the volume of a current program, the bone damage can be enough to overwhelm the body’s ability to repair. In those circumstances, there can be an accumulation of cracks and inflammation that leaves the bones at risk of fatiguing and fracturing. The fatigue failure event results in a stress fracture. The severity of the injury is determined by the location of the stress fracture and the extent to which the fracture propagates across the involved bone.

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Diagnosis

Physical examination of the patient and knowledge of patient history are fundamental for the practitioner in promptly diagnosing a stress fracture. Patients typically present with an insidious onset of localized pain at or around the site of the injury. Initially, the pain from a stress fracture is only experienced during strenuous activities, such as running and jumping. However, as the injury worsens, pain may be present during activities of daily living, such as walking or even sitting. Physical examination classically reveals a focal area of bony tenderness at the site of the fracture. Soreness in the surrounding joint and muscle is common, and, in severe cases, palpable changes to the bone at the site of injury may be present.

Multiple imaging techniques are routinely used in diagnosing stress fractures. Plain radiography (X-ray) is the most commonly used test to diagnose a stress fracture. However, within the first few weeks of injury, X-rays often will not reveal the presence of the fracture. More sensitive approaches for early diagnosis include bone scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI is useful particularly because it can show damage to both bone and nearby structures, such as muscles or ligaments.

Classification

Stress fractures can be classified as high- or low-risk injuries based on their location. This classification allows a practitioner to quickly implement treatment for each stress fracture. Low-risk sites include the medial tibias (inner sides of the shins), the femoral shafts (thighbones), the first four metatarsals of the foot, and the ribs. Those locations tend to heal well and have a relatively low likelihood of recurrence or completion (worsening). Conversely, high-risk stress fracture sites have a comparatively high complication rate and require prolonged recovery or surgery before the individual can resume repetitive physical activity. Common high-risk sites include the femoral neck (hip joint), anterior tibia (front of the shin), medial malleolus (inner side of the ankle), patella (kneecap), navicular bone (front of the lower ankle), sesamoid bones (ball of the foot), and proximal fifth metatarsal (outer side of the foot).

Treatment

The treatment of stress fractures varies with the location of the injury, the severity of the injury, and treatment goals. Low-risk stress fractures generally heal faster and have a lower incidence of poor outcomes than high-risk stress fractures. Depending on the particular injury, treatment may include discontinuation of the precipitating activity only, discontinuation of all training activities, or, for more serious injuries, crutches or surgery. For minor injuries, healing may take as little as three to six weeks, with avoidance of the precipitating activity and with continued cross-training followed by a gradual return to the pre-injury level of participation. More severe injuries require more aggressive treatment and often take two to three months to heal. While treating the stress fracture, it is important to evaluate and modify risk factors that may predispose the athlete to future injuries, including anatomic abnormalities, biomechanical forces, hormonal imbalances, and nutritional deficiencies. A return to play after a stress fracture usually is granted once the athlete is pain-free with activities, is non-tender to palpation, and, for high-risk sites, shows evidence of healing on imaging.

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