space perception

space perception, process through which humans and other organisms become aware of the relative positions of their own bodies and objects around them. Space perception provides cues, such as depth and distance, that are important for movement and orientation to the environment.

Human beings have been interested in the perception of objects in space at least since antiquity. It was popularly thought in ancient Greece that objects could be seen because they emitted what was imagined to be a continuous series of extremely thin “membranes” in their own image; these fell upon the eye and merged into the picture that was perceived.

Centuries of experimental research led to a more tenable conception in which space was described in terms of three dimensions or planes: height (vertical plane), width (horizontal plane), and depth (sagittal plane). These planes all intersect at right angles, and their single axis of intersection is defined as being located within perceived three-dimensional space—that is, in the “eye” of the perceiving individual. Humans do not ordinarily perceive a binocular space (a separate visual world from each eye) but instead see a so-called Cyclopean space, as if the images from each eye fuse to produce a single visual field akin to that of Cyclops, a one-eyed giant in Greek mythology. The horizontal, vertical, and sagittal planes divide space into various sectors: something is perceived as “above” or “below” (the horizontal plane), as “in front of” or “behind” (the vertical plane), or as “to the right” or “to the left” (of the sagittal plane).

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General considerations

An early theory put forth by the Anglican bishop George Berkeley at the beginning of the 18th century was that the third dimension (depth) cannot be directly perceived by the eyes because the retinal image of any object is two-dimensional, as in a painting. He held that the ability to have visual experiences of depth is not inborn but can result only from logical deduction based on empirical learning through the use of other senses such as touch. Although modern research fails to verify Berkeley’s emphasis on reason as central to perception, contemporary theories still include both nativistic (inborn) and empirical (learned through experience) considerations.

The study of perceptual learning developed rapidly in the second half of the 19th century and still more rapidly during the 20th. Many psychologists who deal with perceptual function hold that the study of space perception is rapidly becoming a distinct branch of psychology in its own right. This special field within psychology concentrates on the factors contributing to the perceived organization of objects in space (e.g., on cues to depth perception, movement, form, colour, and their interactions) or dwells on particularly interesting special problems such as that of amodal perception (e.g., the question of how one perceives that there are six sides to a cube, even though only three of them can be seen at a single time).

Space perception research also offers insight into ways that perceptual behaviour helps orient the individual to the environment. Specifically, orientation in space typically seems to reflect one’s strivings (e.g., to seek food or to avoid injury). People could not orient themselves to their environments, however, unless the environmental information reaching them through the various sense organs offered a perception of space that corresponds to their physical “reality.” Such perception is called veridical perception—the direct perception of stimuli as they exist. Without some degree of veridicality concerning physical space, one cannot seek food, flee from enemies, or even socialize. Veridical perception also causes a person to experience changing stimuli as if they were stable: even though the sensory image of an approaching tiger grows larger, for example, one tends to perceive that the animal’s size remains unchanged. In other words, one perceives objects in the environment as having relatively constant characteristics (as to size, colour, and so on) despite considerable variations in stimulus conditions.

Primary gravitational effects

Not all perception of space, however, is veridical; instead, perception may fail to correspond to reality—often in some systematic way. These are cases of nonveridical perception. Experiments have shown that the three basic spatial planes (horizontal, vertical, and sagittal) dominate the ability of the individual to localize visual objects in nearby space. Often, objects can be perceived as lying closer to these basic dimensions or planes than they really are. (Part of the explanation of these perceptual discrepancies in visual experience may lie in the force of gravity.) Nonveridical perceptions do not generate chaos in one’s perception of space. Instead, they clarify the perceived characteristics of surrounding space. If all of the mass of sensory information available at a given moment were perceived veridically, the flood of data might confuse the perceiver to the point of disorientation. In other words, some degree of selectivity in perception appears to guide the survival of the individual. Ideally, information about the environment is perceived only as it is relevant to the goals, needs, or physiological state of the individual at a given moment.

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