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rare-earth element
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A line graph showing electron probability distributions for gadolinium, with separate curves for 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d, and 6s orbitals. The x-axis shows distance from the nucleus in atomic units and the y-axis shows probability P2(r). A line graph plots the metallic radius in angstroms versus atomic number for lanthanides and related rare-earth elements, showing a general decrease across the series with notable peaks at europium (Eu) and ytterbium (Yb). Line graph showing the melting and transformation temperatures of lanthanide and rare-earth elements, with atomic number on the x-axis and temperature in degrees Celsius on the y-axis. Melting points are marked with red circles connected by a solid line, while transformation temperatures use various symbols for different crystal structure changes. Line graph showing the boiling points of rare-earth elements versus atomic number, with each element labeled along the x-axis and boiling points in degrees Celsius on the y-axis. The plot highlights significant variation in boiling points across the series, including sharp drops for europium and ytterbium. Diagram showing four types of crystal structures for rare-earth metals, each represented by colored geometric models with labeled axes and atomic positions. The structures include hexagonal close-packed (hcp), face-centered cubic (fcc), double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp), and Sm-type, with examples of elements listed below each structure. A line graph plots the coefficient of linear thermal expansion for rare-earth elements by atomic number, showing three data series: polycrystalline (yellow triangles), expansion along the c-axis (red circles), and a-axis (blue squares). The x-axis lists elements from scandium to lutetium, and the y-axis shows the coefficient values. A line graph plots Young's modulus, bulk modulus, and shear modulus in gigapascals for rare-earth elements, with atomic number on the x-axis and modulus values on the y-axis. Each element is labeled along the bottom, and three lines-orange triangles for Young's modulus, red circles for bulk modulus, and blue squares for shear modulus-show how these elastic properties vary across the series, with notable dips for europium and ytterbium. Graph of free energy of formation (delta Gf degree) for rare-earth elements from scandium to lutetium. Values generally decrease with atomic number, with spikes at europium and ytterbium. The arrangement of copper, yttrium, oxygen, and barium ions in yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7), an example of a superconducting ceramic crystal structure.
At a Glance
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rare earth metal summary
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Periodic Table of the elements concept image (chemistry)
Facts You Should Know: The Periodic Table Quiz
Periodic table of the elements. Left column indicates the subshells that are being filled as atomic number Z increases. The body of the table shows element symbols and Z. analysis and measurement
Periodic Table of the Elements
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rare-earth element: References & Edit History

Additional Reading

Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr., et al. (eds.), Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths, 42 vol. (1978–2012), extensively covers all areas of rare-earth science and technology. Specific aspects are treated in detail in D.J. Ando and M.G. Pellatt (eds.), Fine Chemicals for the Electronics Industry II: Chemical Applications for the 1990s (1991); V.S. Sastri et al., Modern Aspects of Rare Earths and Their Complexes (2003); Guokui Liu and Bernard Jacquier (eds.), Spectroscopic Properties of Rare Earths in Optical Materials (2005); G. Adachi, N. Imanaka, and Z.C. Kang (eds.), Binary Rare Earth Oxides (2004); A.P. Jones, Frances Wall, and C.T. Williams (eds.), Rare Earth Minerals: Chemistry, Origin, and Ore Deposits (1996); and S.M. Franks, Rare Earth Minerals: Policies and Issues (2012). Richard B. Firestone, The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project’s Exploring the Table of Isotopes (2000), treats the radioactivity of the rare-earth elements.

Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. Vitalij K. Pecharsky

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Article History

Type Description Contributor Date
Modified link of Web site: Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing - RSC Advances - Rare earth composite MOFs materials for energy, environmental and medical applications. Sep 10, 2026
Add new Web site: IOPscience - IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science - On the Global Rare Earth Elements Utilization and Its Supply-Demand in the Future (PDF). Jan 16, 2026
Add new Web site: Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing - RSC Advances - Rare earth composite MOFs materials for energy, environmental and medical applications. Nov 19, 2025
Add new Web site: Natural Resources Canada - Rare earth elements facts. Sep 20, 2025
Add new Web site: The Geological Society - Rare Earth Elements (PDF). Aug 07, 2025
Add new Web site: National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Rare earth elements in biology: From biochemical curiosity to solutions for extractive industries. Jun 26, 2025
Add new Web site: National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Rare earth elements in biology: From biochemical curiosity to solutions for extractive industries. Jun 25, 2025
Add new Web site: Science History Institute - Science of Rare Earth Elements. Sep 26, 2024
Add new Web site: Virginia Department of Energy - Rare Earth Elements. Jun 01, 2024
Add new Web site: Frontiers - Frontiers in Environmental Science - Toxicity of rare earth elements: An overview on human health impact. Apr 11, 2024
Add new Web site: Academia - Rare Earth Elements. Jan 16, 2024
Add new Web site: USGS - The Rare-Earth Elements� Vital to Modern Technologies and Lifestyles. Sep 01, 2023
Add new Web site: Massachusetts Institute of Technology - Rare Earth element. May 25, 2023
Add new Web site: Geology.com - REE - Rare Earth Elements and their Uses. Mar 03, 2023
Add new Web site: Live Science - Why are rare earth elements so rare? Jan 20, 2023
Add new Web site: Science History Institute - History and Future of Rare Earth Elements. Sep 23, 2022
Article revised and updated with Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. Jan 17, 2019
Article revised and updated with Vitalij K. Pecharsky. Jan 17, 2019
Media added. Mar 14, 2014
Text added noting top-producing countries of rare-earth elements. Sep 05, 2013
Article revised jointly with Vitalij K. Pecharsky. Oct 10, 2012
Article revised jointly with Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. Oct 10, 2012
Bibliography revised jointly with Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. Oct 02, 2012
Bibliography revised jointly with Vitalij K. Pecharsky. Oct 02, 2012
The table "Some properties of the rare-earth elements part II" added. Feb 26, 2010
Added new Web site: Rare Element Resources - Rare Earth Elements. Aug 11, 2008
Added new Web site: Ludwig Maximillians Universitat Munchen - Rare Earth Element. Aug 11, 2008
Article revised and updated. Apr 12, 2007
Article revised. Sep 05, 2000
Article added to new online database. Jul 26, 1999
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