Polar ecosystem

Polar ecosystem, complex of living organisms in polar regions such as polar barrens and tundra.

Polar barrens and tundra are found at high latitudes on land surfaces not covered by perpetual ice and snow. These areas lying beyond the tree line comprise more than 10 percent of the Earth’s land surface. Most are in the Arctic and subarctic, as little land area in the Antarctic is ever free of snow and ice (seefigure). The Arctic can be divided into the Low Arctic and High Arctic, according to various environmental and biological characteristics. Tundras are most common in the Low Arctic, and polar barrens are dominant in the High Arctic.

The Russian term “tundra” is derived from the Finnish word tunturi, meaning treeless heights. Tundra is now used in a general sense to describe any cold-climate landscape having vegetation without trees, which includes both mountainous areas (alpine tundra) and areas in the Arctic, subarctic, and Antarctic. In a more restricted sense, tundra denotes a special type of vegetation association. The tundra zones of the polar regions are distinct from the polar barrens, which are sparsely vegetated. (For more information on Arctic and Antarctic lands, see the articles Arctic and Antarctica.)

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Origin of the flora and fauna of the polar regions

The Antarctic region

Antarctica has been isolated from other continental landmasses by broad expanses of ocean since early in the Paleogene Period, about 60 to 40 million years ago. Prior to its separation it existed, along with Australia, South America, peninsular India, and Africa, as part of the landmass known as Gondwanaland. This long separation has impeded the establishment and development of land-based flora and fauna in the Antarctic. Other significant factors that have hampered terrestrial biotic evolution are the harsh climate, the ice cover that completely engulfed the continent during the Pleistocene glaciations, and the present limited number of ice-free land areas, which are restricted primarily to the coastal fringes and nunataks (mountain peaks surrounded by the ice cap). As a consequence, the terrestrial flora and fauna of Antarctica are few. The Antarctic Peninsula, which extends to 63° S, is the location of virtually all floral development of the Antarctic.

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Ecosystems

The Antarctic, however, encompasses not only the continent itself but also those islands lying within the Antarctic Convergence, where northward-flowing cold surface waters meet warmer subantarctic waters. Most Antarctic islands, because of their position beyond the seasonal pack ice, are under much stronger maritime influence than comparable Arctic islands. The flora and fauna of these islands are poorly developed, largely because of their isolation from potential sources of terrestrial biota. South Georgia, the largest of these islands, lies 2,000 kilometres (1,240 miles) east of Tierra del Fuego at 54° to 55° S and encompasses an area of 3,756 square kilometres (1,450 square miles). Heavy precipitation and high mountains account for perennial snow cover at higher elevations and extensive glaciers. Nevertheless, near sea level where soil formation has been possible, a unique Antarctic tundra vegetation has developed, dominated by tussock-forming grasses and mosses. Only 26 species of vascular plants are present, and there are no native land mammals, although reindeer introduced by Norwegian whalers in the early 1900s have established feral populations. Grazing by reindeer has altered plant communities by reduction or local elimination of the most preferred species.

Polar environments

Characteristics of polar environments—the climate, substrates, elevation above sea level, slope, exposure, and proximity to other landmasses—determine the complex of plant and animal life present in the polar regions. It is the interplay of these factors during summer that determines whether temperatures are warm enough and moisture is sufficient to allow plants to grow. The High Arctic is distinguished from the Low Arctic based on ecological criteria, which include a shorter growing season, cooler summers, and a marked reduction in species of flora and fauna.

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The southern limit of the tundra zone in the Northern Hemisphere may extend from 55° N at the southern tip of Hudson Bay in Canada along the northern Bering Sea coast of Alaska and the Russian Far East to above 70° N on the lower Mackenzie River of Canada, along the Khatanga River of central Siberia, and across northern Scandinavia. This limit generally coincides with the isoline of annual net solar radiation of 75 to 80 kilojoules per square centimetre, which closely parallels the 10° C (50° F) July isotherm. However, local variation in this boundary occurs in North America and Eurasia where influences of mountain ranges or warm ocean currents allow forests to penetrate northward to areas with as little as 67 kilojoules per square centimetre of radiation.

Daily summer temperatures may average only 2° to 5° C (35° to 41° F) in typical tundra and polar barrens, and the plant growth season is usually less than 100 days. Although summers are brief at high latitudes, the days of summer are long. At latitudes above the Arctic Circle (66°33′ N) for at least a portion of the summer the Sun is above the horizon for 24 hours each day. This constant sunlight enables plants to optimize photosynthesis without the usual nighttime cost of respiration.

Total annual precipitation is low in the tundra and polar barrens, generally ranging between 100 and 1,000 millimetres (4 to 40 inches) per year. Precipitation is usually greatest near the coasts and at high altitudes. For example, in Greenland and Antarctica and at higher elevations on the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, permanent ice caps form. The low precipitation characteristic of tundra regions is comparable to that of deserts at lower latitudes; however, these regions are unlike true deserts in that the low temperatures in both winter and summer limit evaporation. Thus, a greater portion of the limited moisture from snowmelt and summer rains is available for plant growth. In addition, most tundra and polar barrens are underlain by soils that are permanently frozen (permafrost) except for a thin surface zone (active layer) that thaws each summer. The permafrost limits drainage and retains moisture for plant growth within the active layer. This can result in wetland formation, as occurs in level areas of the coastal plains of the Arctic, which contain extensive wetlands that are home to aquatic vegetation, invertebrate fauna, waterfowl, and shorebirds.

Circulation of air masses around the Earth transports industrial pollutants from temperate regions into the Arctic and Antarctic. Pollutants are becoming concentrated in these regions, and concern is growing over the possible consequences for life at high latitudes. Thinning of the ozone layer in the polar regions resulting from the industrial release of chlorofluorocarbons into the atmosphere may have long-term consequences for plant and animal life. Ultraviolet radiation, previously intercepted by the ozone layer, is detrimental to most life because it inhibits photosynthesis and increases mutation rates in DNA and damages epidermal tissues in plants and animals.