multiple endocrine neoplasia

multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN), any of a group of rare hereditary disorders in which tumours occur in multiple glands of the endocrine system.

MEN is transmitted in an autosomal dominant fashion, meaning that the defect can occur in males and females, and, statistically, half the children of an affected person will also be affected. MEN is often difficult to recognize in its early stages because the pattern of endocrine gland hyperplasia (an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the gland) and tumour development varies. In addition, the tumours that characterize the syndromes of MEN do not appear simultaneously. Thus, a patient may have incomplete expression of one of these inherited syndromes when first examined; however, many of these individuals will later develop other tumours or conditions that are characteristic of a particular type of MEN syndrome.

MEN1

The first described and the most frequently occurring of these rare disorders is MEN1. The principal glands involved in this syndrome are the parathyroid glands, the pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and the anterior pituitary gland. Patients with tumours of two of these three glands are considered to have MEN1. If one family member has been diagnosed with the disorder and a first-degree relative has a tumour of one of the three glands, the condition is defined as familial MEN1. The most common disorder associated with MEN1 is primary hyperparathyroidism (characterized by the presence of parathyroid adenomas or hyperplasia), which occurs in about 90 percent of patients. Coinciding disorders may include pancreatic islet-cell tumours, such as gastric acid-secreting tumours (gastrinomas), pancreatic polypeptide-secreting tumours, insulin-secreting tumours (insulinomas), and, less commonly, glucagon-secreting, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-secreting, or somatostatin-secreting tumours. About 20 percent of cases present as nonsecreting pituitary adenomas or as pituitary adenomas that secrete prolactin or growth hormone. Carcinoid (serotonin-secreting) tumours and tumours of the adrenal cortex may occur, but they may be coincidental rather than an integral part of the disorder.

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Treatment usually consists of surgery for patients with hyperparathyroidism, insulinomas, or growth hormone-secreting and nonsecreting pituitary tumours. Because dopamine is an effective prolactin-inhibiting factor, a dopamine agonist (a drug that increases dopamine activity) may be used for patients with prolactin-secreting pituitary tumours. Surgery or a proton pump inhibitor (a drug that blocks gastric acid secretion) may be used for patients with gastrinomas to decrease levels of gastric acid and the occurrence of peptic ulcers.

Most patients with MEN1, as well as people with a familial risk of developing MEN1, have germ line mutations (mutations that affect all cells in the body) in a tumour suppressor gene designated MEN1. This gene codes for a protein called menin that normally helps prevent neoplastic proliferation (uncontrolled new growth) of cells. Mutations in MEN1 lead to the synthesis of a form of menin that is less active in preventing neoplastic proliferation. The MEN1 gene is expressed in many tissues, including nonendocrine tissues, and it is not understood why mutations in MEN1 result in tumours only in endocrine glands.

Mutation testing in affected patients confirms diagnosis of MEN1, and testing in asymptomatic family members identifies whether they are at risk of developing MEN1. People who carry mutations in MEN1 should be evaluated periodically by history and physical examination and measurements of serum concentrations of calcium, gastrin, and prolactin. Detecting the development of MEN1 in its early stages is important because early treatment is more effective and safer than treatment of more advanced disease.

MEN2

MEN2 is characterized by a different constellation of endocrine abnormalities than MEN1 and is associated with some nonendocrine abnormalities. Conditions associated with MEN2 include medullary carcinoma of the thyroid gland, pheochromocytomas (tumours characterized by high blood pressure), hyperparathyroidism, ganglioneuromas (tumours derived from cells originating in the neural crest during embryological development), and a tall, lean body with long extremities (similar to the physical appearance of individuals affected by Marfan syndrome). If one family member has been diagnosed with medullary thyroid carcinoma and a first-degree relative is diagnosed with any manifestation of the disorder, the condition is defined as familial MEN2. There are three forms of the disorder: MEN2A (accounting for about 75 percent of affected families), familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC-only; accounting for 5 to 20 percent of affected families), and MEN2B (accounting for less than 5 percent of affected families).

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The primary tumour type found in patients with MEN2A is medullary thyroid carcinoma, which occurs in at least 90 percent of affected patients. This is followed by pheochromocytoma, often bilateral (meaning that it occurs in both adrenal glands), in about 50 percent of patients and primary hyperparathyroidism in about 20 percent of patients. The least common form of MEN2, MEN2B, is characterized by medullary thyroid carcinoma in 95 percent of patients, bilateral pheochromocytoma in about 50 percent of patients, intestinal or mucosal ganglioneuromas (benign tumours of the lips, tongue, and lining of the mouth, throat, and intestine) in about 95 percent of patients (but not primary hyperparathyroidism), and a tall, lean physical appearance in roughly 50 percent of patients. Patients and families with FMTC-only should be studied very carefully to be sure affected family members do not have other features of MEN2A or MEN2B.

Medullary carcinomas of the thyroid gland arise from the parafollicular, or C cells, of the thyroid gland, which secrete calcitonin. Medullary thyroid carcinoma is nearly always the first manifestation of MEN2, and it can occur in very young children. It is preceded by hyperplasia of the C cells. Nearly all patients who have only C-cell hyperplasia are cured by total thyroidectomy (removal of the thyroid gland), whereas patients that have hyperplasia that has progressed to carcinoma may not be cured by this operation. Patients with pheochromocytomas should be treated surgically as well. Unlike MEN1, in which several drugs are available to control hormone overproduction by some glands, there is no effective treatment for the other components of MEN2.

Nearly all patients with MEN2 and FMTC-only have germ line mutations in the RET (rearranged during transfection) proto-oncogene (a gene susceptible to mutations that transform it into an oncogene, or cancer-inducing gene). The RET gene codes for a transmembrane protein receptor that contains an intracellular signaling region called a tyrosine kinase domain. The kinase domain is fundamental in activating cell signaling cascades. Kinase activity causes the transfer of high-energy phosphate molecules to tyrosine residues on nearby proteins, resulting in protein activation and initiation of downstream signaling events. These signaling events culminate in specific cellular functions, such as promoting cell survival and differentiation. Mutations in RET that are associated with MEN2 cause the kinase domain to be constantly active (gain-of-function mutations), which predisposes the cells to tumour formation because cell death signaling pathways are inhibited and proliferation pathways are stimulated. The RET gene is expressed in multiple types of tissues, including nonendocrine tissues, and it is not clear why the mutations in this gene that are associated with MEN2 primarily affect only the C cells of the thyroid and the cells of the adrenal medulla.

Because medullary thyroid carcinoma occurs in nearly all individuals that carry a mutation in RET and because it appears at an early age, it is important that all patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma be tested for mutations in RET. If a mutation is found, all family members should be tested for that specific mutation, and prophylactic total thyroidectomy should be done in those who carry the mutation. The timing of the operation depends on the mutation. Patients carrying some mutations should undergo thyroidectomy within the first year of life, before medullary thyroid carcinoma has appeared. In other patients, operations can be delayed until adolescence. Given the lower likelihood of pheochromocytoma and hyperparathyroidism, prophylactic adrenalectomy or parathyroidectomy is not recommended. Family members who do not have the mutation do not need to undergo screening for tumours or prophylactic surgery.