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Cosmology
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Examine the observable universe's place within the whole universe
The Andromeda Galaxy, a bright spiral galaxy with a glowing core and swirling arms, appears against a dense field of stars in deep space. Diagram illustrating the evolutionary theory of the universe, with two panels: one labeled Now showing clustered galaxies, and a second labeled Billions of years later showing the galaxies spread farther apart, indicating expansion over time. Red lines connect the galaxies to emphasize their increasing distances. A grid representing spacetime is distorted by three spheres of different sizes, illustrating how massive objects curve spacetime according to general relativity. experimental evidence for general relativity Two diagrams illustrate intrinsic curvature: on the left, a dome-like bowl shape representing positive curvature; on the right, a saddle shape representing negative curvature. Line graph comparing models of the universe's relative size over time, with time in billions of years on the x-axis and relative size on the y-axis. Multiple colored lines show different expansion scenarios, including ongoing expansion and a closed universe that contracts after reaching a maximum size. Present time and present size are marked with dashed lines. Oval map of the cosmic microwave background radiation from NASA's WMAP mission, showing a mottled pattern of blue, green, yellow, and red representing temperature variations. A sequence of five panels illustrates the early stages of the universe after the big bang. The first panel shows a bright explosion. The next panels depict the dense particle soup of quarks, leptons, and their antiparticles, then the formation of protons and neutrons, followed by the creation of atomic nuclei and finally atoms of hydrogen and helium, with radiation present throughout. supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud
At a Glance
The Andromeda Galaxy, a bright spiral galaxy with a glowing core and swirling arms, appears against a dense field of stars in deep space.
cosmology summary
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The orbits of the planets and other elements of the solar system, including asteroids, Kuiper belt, Oort cloud, comet
Space Odyssey
Ursa major constellation illustration art. (Big Dipper) stars, space, night sky)
Stars: Explosions in Space
Nicolaus Copernicus. Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) Polish astronomer. In 1543 he published, forward proof of a Heliocentric (sun centered) universe. Coloured stipple engraving published London 1802. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi.
All About Astronomy
Horologist Roman Piekarski starts the time consuming task of adjusting the 600 antique clocks at Cuckooland Museum in readiness for this weekends change to British summer time on March 23, 2009 in Knutsford, England.
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Cosmology: References & Edit History

Additional Reading

Several excellent semipopular accounts are available: Timothy Ferris, The Red Limit: The Search for the Edge of the Universe, 2nd rev. ed. (2002); Steven Weinberg, The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe, updated ed. (1993); Nigel Calder, Einstein’s Universe: The Layperson’s Guide, updated ed. (2005); Edward R. Harrison, Cosmology, the Science of the Universe, 2nd ed. (2000); Robert V. Wagoner and Donald W. Goldsmith, Cosmic Horizons (1982); and John Barrow and Joseph Silk, The Left Hand of Creation: The Origin and Evolution of the Expanding Universe, updated ed. (1993). Michael Rowan-Robinson, The Cosmological Distance Ladder (1985), provides a detailed discussion of how astronomers measure distances to galaxies and quasars. Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief History of Time, updated ed. (1998), is a discussion by a modern scientific icon on gravitation theory, black holes, and cosmology. Standard textbooks on general relativity and cosmology include P.J.E. Peebles, Principles of Physical Cosmology (1993); Steven Weinberg, Cosmology (2008); and Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, and John Archibald Wheeler, Gravitation (1973). The interface between particle physics and cosmology is the concern of G.W. Gibbons, Stephen W. Hawking, and S.T.C. Siklos (eds.), The Very Early Universe (1983). One of the best semipopular introductions to the modern attempts to unify the fundamental forces is P.C.W. Davies, The Forces of Nature, 2nd ed. (1986).

Frank H. Shu

Article History

Type Description Contributor Date
Article title updated for style. Nov 09, 2026
Add new Web site: OpenEd at JWU - College Physics - Cosmology and Particle Physics. Sep 12, 2026
Add new Web site: The Royal Society Publishing - Philosophical Transactions A - 100 years of mathematical cosmology: Models, theories, and problems, Part A. Jul 14, 2026
Add new Web site: National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - The Higgs boson and cosmology. Apr 28, 2026
Add new Web site: American Institute of Physics - Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology. Aug 29, 2025
Add new Web site: California Institute of Technology - Department of Astronomy - A Brief History of Cosmology (PDF). May 02, 2025
Add new Web site: OpenStax - Introduction to Philosophy - Cosmology and the Existence of God. Nov 22, 2024
Add new Web site: Encyclopaedia Iranica - Islam in Iran VII. The Concept of Mahdi in Twelver Shi'ism. Oct 17, 2024
Add new Web site: University of Oregon - Cosmology. Aug 05, 2024
Add new Web site: Energy.gov - Cosmology. Jun 28, 2024
Add new Web site: Harvard and Smithsonian - Center for Astrophysics - Cosmology. Apr 05, 2024
Add new Web site: The University of Hawaiʻi Pressbooks - Cosmology and Particle Physics. Dec 15, 2023
Add new Web site: The University of Hawaiʻi Pressbooks - Cosmology and Particle Physics. Dec 15, 2023
Add new Web site: University of California - Physics Department - Cosmology and Culture. Oct 06, 2023
Add new Web site: The National Academies Press - What is Cosmology? Jul 27, 2023
Add new Web site: COSMOS - Cosmology. Jun 15, 2023
Links and video added. May 05, 2023
Add new Web site: Physics LibreTexts - Cosmology. Jan 19, 2023
Removed media. Dec 03, 2021
Media added. May 28, 2021
Changed “Acclerator” to “Accelerator.” Dec 22, 2020
Add new Web site: Space.com - What is Cosmology? Jun 15, 2019
Changed "in 1965 with the discovery of" to "in 1965 with the announcement of the discovery of" in the section Steady state theory and other alternative cosmologies. Jan 18, 2019
Add new Web site: National Aeronautics of Space Administration - How Did Structure Form in the Universe? Sep 15, 2017
Add new Web site: Star Child - Cosmology. Sep 15, 2016
Media added. Apr 29, 2016
Media added. Apr 05, 2016
Added video The Genesis of the Universe. Nov 18, 2015
Updated age of universe from 10 to 13.8 billion years. Jul 14, 2010
Material about CP violation in B-mesons added to section Matter-antimatter asymmetry. May 21, 2010
Bibliography revised and updated. Feb 27, 2009
Article updated. Feb 27, 2009
Added new Web site: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Cosmology. Jan 04, 2009
Added new Web site: Lonely Planet - Shāndōng, China. Jun 13, 2008
Added new Web site: Buzzle.com - Microscope. Jun 13, 2008
Added new Web site: Markelowitz - Cosmology. Jun 13, 2008
Added new Web site: Luminarium Encyclopedia - Medieval cosmology. Jun 13, 2008
Added new Web site: The Catholic Encyclopedia - Cosmology. Jun 13, 2008
Added new Web site: British Broadcasting Corporation - DNA. Jun 13, 2008
Article revised and updated. Nov 20, 2007
Added new Web site: The Collapse of the Universe. Nov 22, 2006
Added new Web site: MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive - A Brief History of Cosmology.
  • Gaurav Shukla
 Nov 21, 2006
Article revised. Feb 08, 1999
Article added to new online database. Jul 20, 1998
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