body dysmorphic disorder

body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), preoccupation with one or more perceived or imagined flaws in one’s physical appearance, leading to excessive self-consciousness. In body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), the person’s preoccupation with physical appearance is overwhelming and is centred on a feature that is usually not noticeable to others. The obsession ultimately is so significant as to disrupt the person’s daily life and increase their risk of other mental health issues, including depression and suicidal thoughts or attempts at suicide. BDD is classified as a psychiatric condition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5; 2013).

Historical developments

The term dysmorphophobia was first used in 1891 by Italian psychiatrist Enrico Morselli. Morselli adapted the Greek word dysmorphia, meaning “ugliness” or “misshapen,” to describe the condition of persons convinced that they were unattractive in some way but who had no outward evidence of such flaws. The word comes from a myth in Herodotus’s The Histories, written about 430 bce, about a child perceived to be unattractive until she is touched by the hand of a mysterious woman. The condition was documented in 1903 by French psychiatrist Pierre Janet and again, in 1918, by Sigmund Freud, who wrote a paper about a patient he referred to as “The Wolf Man,” later revealed to be Russian aristocrat Sergei Pankejeff, who had become obsessed with his nose.

Dysmorphophobia initially appeared in the DSM-III (1980), but the condition was renamed body dysmorphic disorder in the revised edition, DSM III-R (1987); renaming of the condition was based on the realization that it is not a phobia (or fear and avoidance) of the perceived flaw or flaws. In the DSM-5, BDD is included in the section on obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCDs). Subcategories of BDD include muscle dysmorphia (the perception that one’s muscles are underdeveloped) and BDD by proxy (a preoccupation with a perceived flaw in another person).

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Risk factors, causes, and symptoms

BDD affects both men and women. Risk factors can include negative or traumatic life experiences such as abuse, parental neglect, and teasing; low self-esteem; and perfectionism. Onset occurs generally before age 18. While the specific causes of BDD are unknown, it often is associated with other mental health issues, including depression, OCD, and borderline personality disorder. BDD is distinct from anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder characterized by a preoccupation with weight loss and distorted evaluation of one’s body weight, though the two share in common the overall feature of body image dissatisfaction.

Symptoms of BDD include severe emotional distress about one or more aspects of one’s appearance, generally centred on facial features, such as the nose, chin, or teeth, or on the skin or hair; nonetheless, any part of the body can become the focus of obsession, including genitalia. Persons with BDD may also focus not on specific aspects of the face or body but instead perceive themselves as being generally unattractive. Even though the perceived flaw or flaws may seem inconsequential or be unnoticeable to others, the individual’s preoccupation remains.

Diagnostic measures of BDD include at least an hour each day spent focusing on the perceived flaw, which precipitates emotional distress; repetitive behaviours that last anywhere from three to eight hours a day, including constant checking of one’s appearance in mirrors or other reflective surfaces; picking at the skin, sometimes to the extent of scabbing and scarring, which then compounds emotional distress; camouflaging the perceived flaw with makeup or clothing; excessive exercise; feelings of shame; and comparison to others. Collectively, these behaviours interfere with daily life and result in avoidance of social situations, avoidance of relationships, and absenteeism from work or school. On average, patients diagnosed with BDD experience a poor quality of life and have poor emotional well-being. Left untreated, BDD can worsen and exacerbate anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation, with possible eventual attempts at suicide.

Treatment

BDD is treated with psychotherapy and medication. Cognitive behavioral therapy can help patients learn to focus less on perceived flaws and more on the whole body. For specific symptoms, such as skin picking, targeted therapies can be integrated. An obstacle to treatment is the individual seeing the perceived flaw, rather than their fixation, as the problem. Medication may be prescribed in severe cases, particularly to address depression and thoughts of, or attempts at, suicide. Thus, in general, a combination of psychotherapy and medication may be the most effective approach for immediate treatment and long-term maintenance for individuals severely affected by BDD. Cosmetic surgery or similar aesthetic treatment to address the perceived flaw is likely to prove ineffective and may even exacerbate symptoms.

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