adrenochrome
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What is adrenochrome?
Adrenochrome is an unstable chemical compound with the chemical formula (C_9H_9NO_3). It is created through the oxidation of epinephrine, also known as adrenaline. Adrenochrome gets its name from a combination of adrenaline, because of its source, and chrome, due to its color (violet).
In 1937, American biochemist David Ezra Green and English neuroscientist Derek Richter isolated adrenochrome after deducing the mechanism behind the reddish color change of epinephrine exposed to air.
In its unstable form, adrenochrome has little practical use. However, when stabilized through binding to monosemicarbazone, it results in carbazochrome (adrenochrome monosemicarbazone), which helps with blood clotting and is sometimes used to treat hemorrhages.
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Where does adrenochrome come from in the human body?
Adrenochrome is an unstable chemical compound formed in the body by the oxidation of epinephrine (also known as adrenaline). Epinephrine is produced in the adrenal medulla, where the amino acid tyrosine is transformed through a series of reactions to norepinephrine. Then, an enzyme in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla catalyzes the methylation of norepinephrine to epinephrine.
Adrenochrome's name comes from a combination of adrenaline, referring to its source, and chrome, referring to its color (violet).
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How is adrenochrome formed chemically?
Adrenochrome (C9H9NO3) is an unstable chemical compound formed through the oxidation of epinephrine (adrenaline). French physician Alfred Vulpian first observed this process in 1856, noting that epinephrine turned reddish upon air exposure. In 1937, American biochemist David Ezra Green and English neuroscientist Derek Richter isolated adrenochrome in its crystalline form and explained the oxidation mechanism.
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What are some of the physical properties of adrenochrome?
Adrenochrome is an unstable chemical compound with the chemical formula C9H9NO3, formed through the oxidation of epinephrine, also known as adrenaline. Its name combines "adrenaline" and "chrome," referring to its color. Adrenochrome is a red-colored mixture of quinones derived from epinephrine by oxidation.
In its unstable form, adrenochrome has limited practical use. However, when stabilized by binding to monosemicarbazone, it becomes carbazochrome (adrenochrome monosemicarbazone), which aids in blood clotting and is sometimes used to treat hemorrhages.
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Has adrenochrome been used in scientific or medical research?
Adrenochrome is an unstable chemical compound that forms through the oxidation of epinephrine adrenaline. In the 1950s, researchers investigated adrenochrome's potential link to schizophrenia, but the "adrenochrome hypothesis" never gained acceptance in the medical community because independent studies couldn't replicate the original results.
Though adrenochrome itself is of little practical use in its unstable form, stabilizing it via binding to monosemicarbazone results in carbazochrome, which can help promote blood clotting and is sometimes used to treat hemorrhage, though its effectiveness remains inconclusive.
The idea of adrenochrome as a powerful hallucinogen has appeared in fiction, such as in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and has been connected to conspiracy theories, including QAnon.
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What myths or misconceptions exist about adrenochrome?
Adrenochrome, a chemical compound formed through the oxidation of epinephrine, is the subject of several myths and misconceptions. Despite its actual properties, adrenochrome has been depicted in fiction as a powerful hallucinogen derived from the adrenaline glands of living humans.
One significant misconception, popularized by Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, falsely claims that adrenochrome is a potent hallucinogen obtainable only from live humans. This fictional portrayal has been linked to conspiracy theories, including those promoted by QAnon, which baselessly allege that rich and powerful individuals torture children to harvest adrenochrome as an elixir of youth.
The "adrenochrome hypothesis," proposed in the 1950s, suggested a link between adrenochrome and schizophrenia, but this theory has not been validated by the medical community.
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adrenochrome, unstable chemical compound formed by the oxidation of epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and having the chemical formula C9H9NO3. Its name is a combination of the words adrenaline, referring to its source, and chrome, referring to its having a colour (violet).
Adrenochrome in its unstable form is of little practical use. However, its stabilization via binding to monosemicarbazone results in carbazochrome (adrenochrome monosemicarbazone), which promotes blood clotting. Carbazochrome is sometimes used to treat hemorrhage, although its effectiveness remains inconclusive.
Historical developments
In 1856 French physician Alfred Vulpian noted that epinephrine extracted from mammalian suprarenal glands eventually turned a reddish colour when exposed to the air. The mechanism behind this phenomenon was deduced in 1937 by American biochemist David Ezra Green and English neuroscientist Derek Richter, who isolated the substance that resulted from oxidation into its pure crystalline form; they named the substance adrenochrome.
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In the 1950s Canadian psychiatrists Abram Hoffer and Humphry Osmond noticed similarities between the symptoms of schizophrenia and the effects of the hallucinogenic substance mescaline and hypothesized that schizophrenia might be caused by a substance related to adrenaline, based on structural similarities between adrenaline and mescaline. Hoffer and Osmond searched for a compound produced by the body that induced symptoms of schizophrenia and identified adrenochrome as a candidate. After testing adrenochrome on themselves, they claimed that the substance could in fact produce hallucinations.
The observation inspired Hoffer and Osmond’s so-called “adrenochrome hypothesis,” which posited that schizophrenia is caused by the accumulation of adrenochrome in the body and so could be counteracted by megadoses of antioxidants. The idea never found favour with the medical community. Hoffer and Osmond ran a few small studies between 1952 and 1954 and reported successful treatment of people with schizophrenia by using heavy doses of niacin and vitamin C, but independent studies failed to replicate their results. Moreover, other individuals who subsequently tried adrenochrome did not experience psychedelic effects.
Cultural significance and conspiracy theories
The idea of a powerful hallucinogen that could be obtained from the human body, however, was provocative. British author Aldous Huxley made reference to adrenochrome in his book The Doors of Perception (1954), while American author Frank Herbert referenced it in Destination: Void (published in book form in 1966). In the patois of British author Anthony Burgess’s A Clockwork Orange (1962), the substance was obliquely mentioned as “drenchrom.”
Most consequentially, adrenochrome and its supposed effects were depicted in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1971) by American journalist Hunter S. Thompson, which freely blends fact and fiction. In the book, Thompson’s attorney, Dr. Gonzo, claims, “There’s only one source for this stuff…the adrenaline glands from a living human body. It’s no good if you get it out of a corpse.” Thompson’s account, which he admitted to making up, was explicitly referenced on anti-Semitic 4chan message boards in 2013–14 (4chan is an imageboard website). Anonymous posters began adding a new detail to the old superstition that Jewish people kidnap Christian children to drink their blood—Jews, it was now alleged, stole children specifically to “harvest” their adrenochrome.
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In 2016 this idea found its way into similarly credulous threads about the “Pizzagate” conspiracy, where it was claimed that rich and powerful individuals torture children to harvest adrenochrome. From there, the idea found a natural home in the conservative QAnon movement. Believers in the QAnon conspiracy already thought that liberal politicians and movie stars secretly trafficked children; slotting adrenochrome into the conspiracy story provided a new explanation as to why. In 2017 an independent film titled Adrenochrome was released; it features a fictional gang in Venice Beach, California, that kills people for their adrenochrome.
In the years that followed, the fallacious conceptualization of adrenochrome as a human-derived drug has continued to distance itself from scientific fact. Some conspiracists have come to believe that adrenochrome is not just a hallucinogen but an elixir of youth; well-known liberals who are advanced in age have consequently been accused of prolonging their lives with the substance.