Pros and Cons at a Glance
Pros and Cons at a Glance
| PROS | CONS |
|---|---|
| Pro 1: Vaccine-preventable diseases have not disappeared, so mandated vaccination is still necessary. Read More. | Con 1: Vaccine mandates infringe upon constitutionally protected rights. Read More. |
| Pro 2: Vaccine mandates ensure the “herd” is protected. Read More. | Con 2: Counseling, not mandates, is the more effective way to ensure vaccine-hesitant parents vaccinate their children. Read More. |
| Pro 3: Vaccine mandates save children, parents, and society time and money. Read More. | Con 3: The government should not intervene in personal medical choices. Read More. |
Pro Arguments
(Go to Con Arguments)Pro 1: Vaccine-preventable diseases have not disappeared, so mandated vaccination is still necessary.
Children are no longer vaccinated against smallpox because the disease no longer exists due to vaccination. The last case of smallpox in the United States was in 1948; the last case in the world was in Somalia in 1977. However, earlier in the 20th century, the United States was experiencing some 29,000 annual deaths from smallpox.[74] [75]
According to WHO, “Wild poliovirus cases have decreased by over 99 percent since 1988, from an estimated 350 000 cases in more than 125 endemic countries to 6 reported cases in 2021.” The disease now only exists in two countries: Pakistan and Afghanistan.[140]
At one point in the United States, diphtheria was killing some 21,000 people yearly; measles 530,000 people; mumps 162,000 people; rubella 48,000 people; and Hib (a bacterium that causes pneumonia and meningitis) 20,000 people. By 2012, each of these diseases were decreased by 99 percent because of vaccinations.[75]
However, the CDC notes that many vaccine-preventable diseases are still in the United States and require vaccinations. Between January 1 and December 9, 2025, there were 1,912 confirmed cases of measles across 42 states, the most cases since 1992. Of those cases, 1,673 were linked to one of 47 measles outbreaks and 92 percent of those infected were not vaccinated or had unknown vaccine status. By comparison, there were only 285 confirmed cases of measles and 16 outbreaks in 2024.[61]
The CDC also warned that vaccine-preventable diseases are “only a plane ride away.” Between January 1 and May 17, 2019, there were 880 individual measles cases reported in 24 states (compared to 372 cases in all of 2018). Of those, 44 cases were directly imported from 12 other countries, including Philippines, Ukraine, Israel, and Thailand. According to WHO, in January 2019 alone, there were 1,802 cases of measles in Philippines, 13,760 in Ukraine, 290 in Israel, and 797 in Thailand. [76] [130] [131] [132]
According to a 2024 study, vaccines prevented 154 million deaths globally between 1974 and 2024—meaning about six lives were saved every minute by vaccines. Of the deaths prevented, 146 million were children under five years old. The measles vaccine alone prevented some 93-97 million of those deaths. The authors conclude that vaccines accounted for 40 percent of the global decline in infant mortality.[57] [56]
Pro 2: Vaccine mandates ensure the “herd” is protected.
According to Brian K. Lee of the School of Public Health at Drexel University, herd immunity (or community immunity) is the
state in which a large proportion of a population is able to repel an infectious disease, thereby limiting the extent to which the disease can spread from person to person . . . herd immunity can occur when the population density of persons who are susceptible to infection is sufficiently low so as to minimize the likelihood of an infected individual coming in contact with a susceptible individual. Herd immunity can prevent sustained disease spread in populations, thereby protecting susceptible individuals from infection.[146]
Children and adults who cannot be vaccinated due to age, poor health (who are immune-compromised or undergoing chemotherapy, for example), or other reasons rely on herd immunity to prevent contraction of vaccine-preventable diseases. [62]
In 2025, some 254 unvaccinated students were under a three-week quarantine in December, with some in a second quarantine, during an ongoing measles outbreak in Spartanburg, South Carolina. As the outbreak continued into 2026, students were also quarantined at two local universities. An April 2019 measles outbreak resulted in the quarantine of over 200 people who had been exposed to the measles on the campuses of the University of California at Los Angeles and California State University. Because the vaccination status of these individuals could not be verified, quarantining them raised the herd immunity of these campuses and blocked the spread of the disease. In 2011, 49 U.S. states did not meet the 92-94 percent herd immunity threshold for pertussis (whooping cough), resulting in a 2012 outbreak that sickened 48,277 people and was the biggest outbreak since 1955. [64] [123] [124] [59] [150]
However, in 2005, an 18-month-old Amish girl contracted polio and spread the disease to four other unvaccinated children, but because the community met the herd immunity threshold for the disease, there was no polio outbreak. Vaccine mandates ensure that herd immunity remains high enough to protect the vulnerable. [65] [66]
Pro 3: Vaccine mandates save children, parents, and society time and money.
Vaccines cost less in time and money to obtain than infectious diseases cost in time off of work to care for a sick child, potential short- or long-term disability care, and medical costs.
For example, children under five with the flu are contagious for about eight days, and, according to a 2012 CDC study (the most recent available), cost their parents an average of 11 to 73 hours of wages (about $222 to $1,456) and $300 to $4,000 in medical expenses. Children with rotavirus are contagious for up to 30 days, greatly increasing costs to parents. Children miss critical school days rich in education and social development, while being subjected to an illness. Furthermore, under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA, or Obamacare) many vaccines are available to children and adults without copay. [67] [68] [69] [70] [71]
Taxpayers, even those without children or with vaccinated children, also pay for children who contract vaccine-preventable diseases. A 2018 study found that each case of measles in Arkansas cost the health department $47,962. Between January 1 and May 20, 2019, there were 880 cases of measles in 24 states, costing taxpayers an estimated $42.2 million. [125] [126]
The CDC estimates that vaccinated children born between 1994 and 2018 have yielded net savings of $406 billion in direct costs and $1.9 trillion in societal costs, which includes money saved by preventing lost productivity due to disability and early death. The United States saves about $27 per $1 invested in DTaP vaccination, and $13 per $1 spent on MMR vaccination. [80] [128]
Globally, UNICEF estimated that $6.2 billion could be saved in treatment costs if vaccines were more prominent in the world’s poorest countries. According to the International Vaccines Access Center, $62.9 billion could be saved by providing Hib, pneumococcal, and rotavirus vaccinations to the 73 poorest countries: $1.4 billion in treatment costs, $300 million in lost caretaker wages, $6.2 billion in lifetime productivity loss due to disability, and $55 billion in lifetime productivity loss because of death. American taxpayers subsidize aid to these countries. [52] [81]
Con Arguments
(Go to Pro Arguments)Con 1: Vaccine mandates infringe upon constitutionally protected rights.
The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution states, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.” [91]
In the unanimous 1939 ruling for Cantwell v. Connecticut, the U.S. Supreme Court held that state and local governments’ infringement upon religious freedom is also unconstitutional. [92]
Several religious groups oppose mandatory vaccinations. For example, some Amish communities do not view all vaccinations as “necessary” and some believe that vaccinations weaken the immune system. [78] [94]
The Church of Illumination states that
the teachings of the Church unequivocally affirm that injections of vaccines and inoculations are a violation of these biblical teachings.… Immunizations and vaccinations are a form of blood pollution because they have devastating effects on the regeneration of the soul that each Church member seeks to attain.[95]
The Universal Family Church believes that parents should decide whether their children should be vaccinated and that “God intends the health decisions of individuals should … be honored by all authorities.” [96]
Con 2: Counseling, not mandates, is the more effective way to ensure vaccine-hesitant parents vaccinate their children.
Because a high percentage of kids will already be vaccinated, or their parents are agreeable to additional vaccines, state school policies are necessarily directed toward parents and caregivers who are vaccine hesitant or whose children are under- or unvaccinated.
A 2019 study found that
Vaccine-hesitant parents who are on the fence far outnumber vaccine refusers; therefore, counseling this group might be more effective,” because mandates are not the best way to change peoples’ minds about vaccines. The study found that “Practical tips for addressing parental vaccine hesitancy in primary care include starting early, presenting vaccination as the default approach, building trust, being honest about side effects, providing reassurance on a robust vaccine safety system, focusing on protection of the child and community, telling stories, and addressing pain. [139]
The study concluded family physicians are a front-line resource in battling vaccine hesitancy:
Reasons behind vaccine hesitancy are complex and encompass more than just a knowledge deficit. As a trusted source of information on vaccines, family physicians play a key role in driving vaccine acceptance.[139]
People of color and LGBTQ+ people have high rates of healthcare distrust due to current and historical medical mistreatment and discrimination, which can translate into vaccine hesitancy. As the Commonwealth Fund explained,
The medical establishment has a long history of mistreating Black Americans — from gruesome experiments on enslaved people to the forced sterilizations of Black women and the infamous Tuskegee syphilis study that withheld treatment from hundreds of Black men for decades to let doctors track the course of the disease.[141] [142] [143] [144] [145]
These concerns have continued into the era of modern medicine and are applicable to other communities of color, including Latinos and Indigenous people. Offering education about vaccines would be a more effective and kind policy than mandates. [141] [142] [143] [144] [145]
Con 3: The government should not intervene in personal medical choices.
Medical decisions for children should be left to parents or caregivers. Barbara Loe Fisher, Co-founder of National Vaccine Information Center, stated, “If the State can tag, track down and force citizens against their will to be injected with biological products … there will be no limit on which individual freedoms the State can take away in the name of the greater good tomorrow.” [89]
Ron Paul, former US Representative (R-TX), stated,
intimately personal medical decisions should not be made by government…. Freedom over one’s physical person is the most basic freedom of all, and people in a free society should be sovereign over their own bodies. When we give government the power to make medical decisions for us, we in essence accept that the state owns our bodies.[90]
Further, some vaccines contain ingredients some parents consider immoral or otherwise objectionable; mandates infringe on those sincerely held beliefs. For example, some DTaP/IPV/Hib combination, Hep A/Hep B combination, HepA, MMR, and chickenpox vaccines are cultivated in cells from two fetuses aborted in the 1960s (listed as MRC-5 and WI-38 on package inserts). The Catholic Church, in a report about using vaccines made using cells from aborted fetuses, indicated that “there is a grave responsibility to use alternative vaccines” to avoid the “evil” of actively or passively participating in anything that involves abortion. [97]
Furthermore, some vaccines for DTaP, Hep A, RV, Hib, HPV, IPV, flu, MMR, and chickenpox are made using animal products like chicken eggs, bovine casein, insect cells, Cocker Spaniel cells, pig gelatin, and cells from African Green monkeys, making those vaccines conflict with some vegetarian and vegan philosophies. Others consider it problematic that some vaccines are produced using human albumin, a blood plasma protein.
Kirk Milhoan, a pediatric cardiologist and chair of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, said people must be free to choose: “If there is no choice, then informed consent is an illusion.…Without consent it is medical battery.”[155]
Vaccinations required by U.S. public schools
Each state and D.C. has its own vaccine requirements to attend public school for children age 5 and older. If a child starts kindergarten before turning 5, additional vaccines may be required. Below, find which vaccines are mandated by public schools as of December 22, 2025.[48]
On October 20, 2022, the CDC voted to add the coronavirus vaccine to the schedule of recommended vaccines for children and adults. However, in 2025, the CDC “updated [the COVID-19 vaccination recommendation] to reflect individual-based decision-making (also known as shared clinical decision-making) for people ages 6 months and older.” The COVID-19 vaccine is, therefore, no longer on the CDC’s schedule of recommended vaccines but can be obtained via a prescription from a healthcare provider.[136] [60]
In 2025, Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis and State Surgeon General Joseph Ladapo announced plans to repeal all vaccine mandates in the state. On December 12, the Florida Health Department held a public meeting about repealing the vaccines under the purview of Ladapo, which include varicella (chickenpox); hepatitis B; pneumococcal bacteria; and Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib). Other vaccines mandated by the state for school attendance—measles, mumps, rubella, pertussis (whooping cough), diphtheria, and polio—can only be repealed by the Florida legislature, which had announced no plans to do so by December 22, 2025. [58]
On January 5, 2026, the CDC removed six vaccines from the childhood schedule: hepatitis A, hepatitis B, influenza (flu), meningitis, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and rotavirus. Children who are considered high-risk or whose parents participate in “shared clinical decision making” (basically a discussion and health recommendation reached with their child’s doctor) may still receive the vaccines.[46] [45] [44]
The CDC schedule still recommends 11 childhood vaccines: measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR vaccine), whooping cough, tetanus, and diphtheria (DTap vaccine), Hib; pneumonia, polio (IPV), chickenpox (varicella virus), and human papillomavirus (HPV). If and how state school vaccine mandates may change in response to the CDC guidance reamins to be seen.[46] [45] [44]
Though each state and D.C. has vaccine requirements, every state and D.C. also allows for vaccine exemptions. Note that this resource is for educational purposes only and may not reflect the most recent changes in any state requirements. Always check with your state’s Department of Health, Department of Education, or local school for current vaccination requirements. The CDC also provides vaccination schedules.
DTaP: Diphtheria, Tetanus, & Pertussis
All 50 states and D.C. require the DTap vaccine (or another vaccine combination for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis) for school entry.
IPV: Polio
All 50 states and D.C. require the IPV vaccine for school entry.
Varicella: Chickenpox
All 50 states and D.C. require the varicella vaccine for school entry, though some will accept proof of immunity (meaning the child had chickenpox) instead of vaccination. Some states list the MMRV (measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella) vaccine as appropriate.
MMR: Measles, Mumps, & Rubella
49 states and D.C. require the MMR vaccine for school entry. Some states list the MMRV (measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella) vaccine as appropriate.
Iowa, the only state to not require the MMR vaccine, requires a measles and a rubella vaccine but not a mumps vaccine.
HepB: Hepatitis B
49 states and D.C. require the Hep B vaccine for school entry. Only Alabama does not require the Hep B vaccine.
HepA: Hepatitis A
27 states and D.C. require the Hep A vaccine for school entry: Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.
HPV: Human Papillomavirus
3 states and D.C. require the HPV vaccine for school entry if the student is 11 or older: Hawaii, Rhode Island, and Virginia.
Meningococcal: Neisseria meningitidis infections
35 states and D.C. require the meningococcal vaccine for school entry if the student is 11 or older: Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
State vaccination exemptions for children entering public schools
No U.S. federal vaccination laws exist, but all 50 states have laws requiring children attending public school to be vaccinated against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (generally in a DTaP vaccine); polio (an IPV vaccine); measles and rubella (generally in an MMR vaccine); and varicella (chickenpox).
However, all 50 states allow medical exemptions, 45 states allow religious exemptions, and 15 states allow philosophical (or personal belief) exemptions. D.C. allows medical and religious exemptions.[48]
Note that this resource is for educational purposes only and may not reflect the most recent changes in any state requirements. Always check with your state’s Department of Health, Department of Education, or local school for current vaccination requirements. The CDC also provides vaccination schedules.
| Allows medical exemptions | Allows religious exemptions | Allows philosophical or personal belief exemptions | |
|---|---|---|---|
| *Minnesota classifies religious beliefs as personal beliefs for vaccine exemptions. Source: National Conference of State Legislatures, “State Non-Medical Exemptions From School Immunization Requirements” (July 24, 2025), ncsl.org | |||
| 50 states & D.C. | 45 states & D.C. | 15 states & D.C. | |
| Alabama | yes | yes | no |
| Alaska | yes | yes | no |
| Arizona | yes | yes | yes |
| Arkansas | yes | yes | yes |
| California | yes | no | no |
| Colorado | yes | yes | yes |
| Connecticut | yes | no | no |
| Delaware | yes | yes | no |
| DC | yes | yes | no |
| Florida | yes | yes | no |
| Georgia | yes | yes | no |
| Hawaii | yes | yes | no |
| Idaho | yes | yes | yes |
| Illinois | yes | yes | no |
| Indiana | yes | yes | no |
| Iowa | yes | yes | no |
| Kansas | yes | yes | no |
| Kentucky | yes | yes | no |
| Louisiana | yes | yes | yes |
| Maine | yes | no | no |
| Maryland | yes | yes | no |
| Massachusetts | yes | yes | no |
| Michigan | yes | yes | yes |
| Minnesota | yes | yes* | yes |
| Mississippi | yes | yes | no |
| Missouri | yes | yes | no |
| Montana | yes | yes | no |
| Nebraska | yes | yes | no |
| Nevada | yes | yes | no |
| New Hampshire | yes | yes | no |
| New Jersey | yes | yes | no |
| New Mexico | yes | yes | no |
| New York | yes | no | no |
| North Carolina | yes | yes | no |
| North Dakota | yes | yes | yes |
| Ohio | yes | yes | yes |
| Oklahoma | yes | yes | yes |
| Oregon | yes | yes | yes |
| Pennsylvania | yes | yes | yes |
| Rhode Island | yes | yes | no |
| South Carolina | yes | yes | no |
| South Dakota | yes | yes | no |
| Tennessee | yes | yes | no |
| Texas | yes | yes | yes |
| Utah | yes | yes | yes |
| Vermont | yes | yes | no |
| Virginia | yes | yes | no |
| Washington | yes | yes | yes |
| West Virginia | yes | no | no |
| Wisconsin | yes | yes | yes |
| Wyoming | yes | yes | no |
Vaccine ingredients and manufacturer information
Listed below are vaccine ingredients (substances that appear in the final vaccine product), process ingredients (substances used to create the vaccine that may or may not appear in the final vaccine product), and growth mediums (the substances vaccines are grown in) for vaccines licensed for use by the Food & Drug Administration (FDA).
Three vaccines licensed for use by the FDA (plague, poliovax, and rabies vaccine adsorbed) are listed on the FDA site, but do not have available package inserts or other information, and thus are not included below.
Controversial products used to make vaccines include but are not limited to: African Green Monkey (Vero) cells, aluminum, cow products, Cocker Spaniel cells, formaldehyde, human fetal lung tissue cells, insect products, and mouse brains. More information on some controversial products may be found in the glossary on this page.
Though not listed, each vaccine contains strains of the virus being vaccinated against. Each vaccine entry links to the manufacturer’s package insert that contains information about dosage, ingredient quantity, and how the vaccine is made. Some vaccines, like influenza (flu) vaccines, are modified frequently and you may wish to consult your doctor’s office or pharmacy for the most current information. [148] [133] [129] [127] [119] [113] [111] [110] [109] [108]
Adenovirus
Adenovirus Type 4 and Type 7 Vaccine, Live, Oral
- Manufacturer: Barr Labs Inc.
- Package insert (October 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:human-diploid fibroblast cell cultures (WI-38), Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium, fetal bovine serum, sodium bicarbonate
- Vaccine ingredients: anhydrous lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, polacrilin potassium, magnesium stearate, live adenovirus [Type 4 or Type 7, dried substance includes monosodium glutamate, sucrose, D-mannose, D-fructose, dextrose, human serum albumin, potassium phosphate, and plasdone C], microcrystalline cellulose, magnesium stearate, and anhydrous lactose, cellulose acetate phthalate, alcohol, acetone, castor oil; Type 7 tablet also contains FD&C Yellow #6 aluminum lake dye.
Anthrax
Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: Emergent BioDefense Operations Lansing LLC
- Biothrax Package insert (November 2015)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:amino acids, vitamins, inorganic salts, sugars
- Vaccine ingredients: proteins [including the 83kDa protective antigen (PA) protein], aluminum, benzethonium chloride, formaldehyde
BCG
(tuberculosis)
BCG Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Organon Teknika Corp.
- Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:glycerin, asparagine, citric acid, potassium phosphate, magnesium sulfate, iron ammonium citrate
- Vaccine ingredients: lactose, sterile water
BCG Live
- Manufacturer: Organon Teknika Corp.
- Tice BCG Package insert (February 2009)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:glycerin, asparagine, citric acid, potassium phosphate, magnesium sulfate, iron ammonium citrate
- Vaccine ingredients: lactose, saline
Cholera
Cholera Vaccine Live Oral
- Manufacturer: Emergent Travel Health, Inc.
- Vaxchora Package insert (December 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:frozen: casamino acids, yeast extract, mineral salts, anti-foaming agent, ascorbic acid, Hy-Case SF, sodium chloride, sucrose, dried lactose; other: casamino acids, yeast extract, mineral salts, anti-foaming agent, ascorbic acid, Hy-Case SF, sucrose, anhydrous lactose
- Vaccine ingredients: frozen: sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, ascorbic acid, dried lactose, sucrose, sodium chloride, Hy-Case SF; other: sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, ascorbic acid, anhydrous lactose, sucrose, Hy-Case SF, anhydrous lactose
COVID-19
COVID-19 Vaccine, mRNA
This vaccine is commonly known as the Pfizer coronavirus vaccine.
- Manufacturer: BioNTech Manufacturing GmbH
- Comirnaty Package insert (August 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:n/a
- Vaccine ingredients: sodium chloride, lipids ((4-hydroxybutyl)azanediyl)bis(hexane-6,1-diyl)bis(2-hexyldecanoate), 2-(polyethylene glycol 2000)-N,N-ditetradecylacetamide, 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, cholesterol), potassium chloride, monobasic potassium phosphate, dibasic sodium phosphate dihydrate, sucrose
Dengue
Dengue Tetravalent Vaccine, Live
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Inc.
- DENGVAXIA Package insert (June 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Vero cells (African Green Monkey kidney), stabilizer solution
- Vaccine ingredients: sodium chloride, essential amino acids (including L-phenylalanine), non-essential amino acids, L-arginine hydrochloride, sucrose, D-trehalose dihydrate, D-sorbitol, trometamol, urea
DT
(diphtheria & tetanus)
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Inc.
- Package insert (June 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:aluminum phosphate, isotonic sodium chloride solution, formalin, tryptic digest of casein, cystine, maltose, uracil, inorganic salts, vitamins
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum phosphate, formaldehyde
DTaP
(diphtheria, tetanus, & pertussis)
Diphtheria & Tetanus Toxoids & Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Infanrix Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Fenton medium (containing bovine extract), Latham medium, Stainer-Scholte liquid medium, glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, aluminum hydroxide
- Vaccine ingredients: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (69 kiloDalton outer membrane protein), aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, formaldehyde, polysorbate 80 (Tween 80).
Diphtheria & Tetanus Toxoids & Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- DAPTACEL Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethyl-beta-cyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, aluminum phosphate, Mueller’s growth medium, ammonium sulfate, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium (without beef heart infusion), 2-phenoxyethanol, water
- Vaccine ingredients: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (PRN), fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM), aluminum phosphate, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, 2-phenoxyethanol
DTap-HepB-IPV
(diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, & polio)
Diphtheria & Tetanus Toxoids & Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Adsorbed, Hepatitis B (recombinant) and Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine Combined
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Pediarix Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Fenton medium containing a bovine extract, Latham medium derived from bovine casein, formaldehyde, Stainer-Scholte liquid medium, glutaraldehyde, genetically engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) cells, VERO cells, calf serum, lactalbumin hydrolysate, aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate
- Vaccine ingredients: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (69 kiloDalton outer membrane protein), HBsAg, aluminum salts, sodium chloride, formaldehyde, polysorbate 80 (Tween 80), neomycin sulfate, polymyxin B, yeast protein
DTaP-IPV
(diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, & polio)
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Acellular Pertussis Adsorbed and Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- KINRIX Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Fenton medium containing a bovine extract, Latham medium derived from bovine casein, formaldehyde, Stainer-Scholte liquid medium, glutaraldehyde, aluminum hydroxide, VERO cells, calf serum and lactalbumin hydrolysate
- Vaccine ingredients: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (69 kiloDalton outer membrane protein), aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, formaldehyde, polysorbate 80 (Tween 80), neomycin sulfate, polymyxin B
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Acellular Pertussis Adsorbed and Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Limited
- Quadracel version 1 Package insert (Feb, 2021)
- Quadracel version 2 Package insert (December 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:version 1: Mueller’s growth medium, ammonium sulfate, formaldehyde, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, aluminum phosphate, Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethyl-betacyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, aluminum phosphate, MRC-5 cells, CMRL (Connaught Medical Research Laboratories) 1969 medium supplemented with calf serum, Medium 199 without calf serum, 2-phenoxyethanol, water
- version 2: Mueller’s growth medium, ammonium sulfate, formaldehyde, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, aluminum phosphate, Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethyl-betacyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, Vero cells, Iscove’s medium, calf serum, M199 medium without calf serum, 2-phenoxyethanol, water
- Vaccine ingredients: version 1: filamentous hemagglutinin(FHA), pertactin (PRN), fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM), aluminum phosphate, 2-phenoxyethanol, water, polysorbate 80, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, bovine serum albumin, 2-phenoxyethanol, neomycin, polymyxin B sulfate
- version 2: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (PRN), fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM), aluminum phosphate, polysorbate 80, 2-phenoxyethanol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, bovine serum albumin, streptomycin sulphate, neomycin and polymyxin B sulphate
DTaP-IPV-Hib-HepB
(diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, haemophilus influenzae type B, & hepatitis B)
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Acellular Pertussis Adsorbed, Inactivated Poliovirus, Haemophilus b Conjugate [Meningococcal Protein Conjugate] and Hepatitis B [Recombinant] Vaccine
- Manufacturer: MSP Vaccine Company
- VAXELIS Package insert (October 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Mueller’s growth medium, ammonium sulfate, formaldehyde, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, aluminum phosphate, Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethyl-betacyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, Vero cells, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeast, soy peptone, dextrose, amino acids, mineral salts, phosphate buffer, alum (potassium aluminum sulfate), amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, hemin chloride, soy peptone, dextrose, mineral salts, N. meningitidis serogroup B
- Vaccine ingredients: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (PRN), fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM), aluminum, polysorbate 80, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, bovine serum albumin, neomycin, streptomycin sulfate, polymyxin B sulfate, ammonium thiocyanate, yeast protein
DTaP-IPV-Hib
(diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, & haemophilus influenzae type B)
Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Acellular Pertussis Adsorbed, Inactivated Poliovirus and Haemophilus b Conjugate (Tetanus Toxoid Conjugate) Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Limited
- Pentacel version 1 Package insert (February 2021)
- Pentacel version 2 Package insert (December 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:version 1: Mueller’s growth medium, ammonium sulfate, formaldehyde, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, aluminum phosphate, Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethyl-betacyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, aluminum phosphate, MRC-5 cells, CMRL (Connaught Medical Research Laboratories) 1969 medium (supplemented with calf serum), Medium 199 (without calf serum), 2-phenoxyethanol, water, semi-synthetic medium
- version 2: Mueller’s growth medium, ammonium sulfate, formaldehyde, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, aluminum phosphate, Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethyl-beta310 cyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, Vero cells, Iscove’s medium (supplemented with calf serum), M199 medium without calf serum, 2-phenoxyethanol, water
- Vaccine ingredients: version 1: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (PRN), fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM), aluminum phosphate, polysorbate 80, sucrose, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, bovine serum albumin, 2-phenoxyethanol, neomycin, polymyxin B sulfate
- version 2: filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (PRN), fimbriae types 2 and 3 (FIM), aluminum phosphate, polysorbate 80, 2-phenoxyethanol, sucrose, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, bovine serum albumin, streptomycin sulphate, neomycin, polymyxin B sulphate.
Ebola
Ebola Zaire Vaccine, Live
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- ERVEBO Package insert (2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:serum-free Vero cell cultures
- Vaccine ingredients: Tromethamine (Tris), rice-derived recombinant human serum albumin, host cell DNA, benzonase, rice protein
Hib
(haemophilus influenzae type B)
Haemophilus b Conjugate Vaccine (Meningococcal Protein Conjugate)
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- PedvaxHIB Package insert (1998)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:complex fermentation media
- Vaccine ingredients: amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate (previously referred to as aluminum hydroxide), sodium chloride
Haemophilus b Conjugate Vaccine (Tetanus Toxoid Conjugate)
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, SA
- ActHIB Package insert (May 17, 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:semi-synthetic medium, ammonium sulfate, Mueller and Miller medium, milk-derived raw materials (casein derivatives)
- Vaccine ingredients: saline diluent, purified capsular polysaccharide
Haemophilus b Conjugate Vaccine (Tetanus Toxoid Conjugate)
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Hiberix Package insert (April 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:synthetic medium, semi-synthetic medium, formaldehyde, lactose, sterile saline solution
- Vaccine ingredients: purified capsular polysaccharide, lactose, formaldehyde
Hep A
(hepatitis A)
Hepatitis A Vaccine, Inactivated
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Havrix Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:MRC-5 human diploid cells
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum hydroxide, amino acid supplement, phosphate-buffered saline solution, polysorbate 20, MRC-5 cellular proteins, formalin, neomycin sulfate
Hepatitis A Vaccine, Inactivated
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- VAQTA Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:MRC-5 diploid fibroblasts, amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate
- Vaccine ingredients: nonviral protein, DNA, bovine albumin, formaldehyde, neomycin, amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate, sodium borate, sodium chloride
Hep A & Hep B
(hepatitis A & hepatitis B)
Hepatitis A Inactivated and Hepatitis B (Recombinant) Vaccine
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Twinrix Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:MRC-5 human diploid cells, formalin, Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast cells, aluminum salts
- Vaccine ingredients: listaluminum phosphate, aluminum hydroxide, amino acids, sodium chloride, phosphate buffer, polysorbate 20, water, formalin, MRC-5 cellular proteins, neomycin sulfate, yeast protein
Hep B
(hepatitis B)
Hepatitis B Vaccine (Recombinant)
- Manufacturer: Merck & Co, Inc
- Recombivax HB Package insert (December 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:yeast cells, fermentation medium [extract of yeast, soy peptone, dextrose, amino acids, mineral salts], phosphate buffer, formaldehyde, potassium aluminum sulfate, amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate
- Vaccine ingredients: yeast protein, amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate, formaldehyde
Hepatitis B Vaccine (Recombinant)
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Engerix-B Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, aluminum hydroxide
- Vaccine ingredients: listyeast protein. aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, phosphate buffers [disodium phosphate dihydrate, sodium dihydrogen phosphate dihydrate]
Hepatitis B Vaccine (Recombinant), Adjuvanted
- Manufacturer: Dynavax Technologies Corporation
- HEPLISAV-B Package insert (2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Hansenula polymorpha yeast, fermentation media [vitamins, mineral salts], CpG 1018 adjuvant [22-mer phosphorothioate linked oligodeoxynucleotide, phosphate buffered saline (sodium chloride, sodium phosphate, dibasic dodecahydrate, monobasic dihydrate, polysorbate 80)]
- Vaccine ingredients: yeast protein, yeast DNA, deoxycholate, CpG 1018
HPV
(human papillomavirus)
Human Papillomavirus Quadrivalent (Types 6, 11, 16, 18) Vaccine, Recombinant
- Manufacturer: Merck & Co., Inc
- Gardasil Package insert (April 2015)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fermentation media [vitamins, amino acids, mineral salts, carbohydrates], amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate
- Vaccine ingredients: amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate adjuvant, sodium chloride, L-histidine, polysorbate 80, sodium borate, yeast protein, water
Human Papillomavirus 9-valent Vaccine, Recombinant
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- Gardasil 9 Package insert (August 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fermentation media [vitamins, amino acids, mineral salts, carbohydrates], amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate
- Vaccine ingredients: amorphous aluminum hydroxyphosphate sulfate, sodium chloride, L-histidine, polysorbate 80, sodium borate, yeast protein, water
Human Papillomavirus Bivalent (Types 16, 18) Vaccine, Recombinant
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Cervarix Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:serum-free culture media [lipids, vitamins, amino acids, mineral salts], hydroxide salt, AS04 [3-O-desacyl-4’-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), hydroxide salt, sodium chloride, sodium dihydrogen phosphate dihydrate, water
- Vaccine ingredients: 3-O-desacyl-4’-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium dihydrogen phosphate dihydrate, insect cell and viral protein, bacterial cell protein
Influenza A (H1N1)
(swine flu)
Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 Monovalent Vaccine
- Manufacturer: CSL Limited
- Package insert (November 2009)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:allantoic fluid of embryonated chicken eggs, sucrose density gradient, betapropiolactone, sodium taurodeoxycholate, phosphate buffered isotonic solution
- Vaccine ingredients: allantoic fluid of embryonated chicken eggs, sucrose density gradient, betapropiolactone, sodium taurodeoxycholate, phosphate buffered isotonic solution
Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 Monovalent Vaccine
- Manufacturer: ID Biomedical Corporation of Quebec
- Package insert (January 2010)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:allantoic cavity of embryonated hens’ eggs, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate
- Vaccine ingredients: phosphate-buffered saline solution, thimerosal, egg proteins, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate
Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 Monovalent Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- ERVEBO Package insert (2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:serum-free Vero cell cultures
- Vaccine ingredients: Tromethamine (Tris), rice-derived recombinant human serum albumin, host cell DNA, benzonase, rice protein
Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 Monovalent Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics Limited
- Package insert (September 2009)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:allantoic cavity of embryonated hens’ eggs, neomycin, polymyxin, betapropiolactone, nonylphenol ethoxylate
- Vaccine ingredients: phosphate buffered saline, thimerosal, egg proteins, polymyxin, neomycin, betapropiolactone, nonylphenol ethoxylate
Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 Monovalent Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, Inc.
- Package insert (September 2009)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:embryonated chicken eggs, formaldehyde, linear sucrose density gradient solution, non-ionic surfactant, polyethylene glycol p-isooctylphenyl ether (Triton® X-100), sodium phosphate-buffered isotonic sodium chloride solution
- Vaccine ingredients: formaldehyde, polyethylene glycol p-isooctylphenyl ether, sucrose, thimerosal
Influenza A (H5N1)
(bird flu)
Influenza Virus Vaccine, H5N1 (for National Stockpile)
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Inc.
- Package insert (April 2007)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:embryonated chicken eggs, formaldehyde, linear sucrose density gradient solution, nonionic surfactant, polyethylene glycol p-isooctylphenyl ether (Triton® X-100), sodium phosphate-buffered isotonic sodium chloride solution
- Vaccine ingredients: porcine gelatin, thimerosal, formaldehyde, polyethylene glycol pIsooctylphenyl ether, sucrose
Influenza A (H5N1) Virus Monovalent Vaccine, Adjuvanted
- Manufacturer: ID Biomedical Corporation of Quebec
- Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:phosphate-buffered saline solution, allantoic cavity of embryonated hen’s eggs, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate, squalene, DL-α-tocopherol, polysorbate 80
- Vaccine ingredients: AS03 adjuvant emulsion, thimerosal, DL-α-tocopherol, polysorbate 80, ovalbumin, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate
Influenza A (H5N1) Monovalent Vaccine, Adjuvanted
- Manufacturer: Seqirus, Inc.
- AUDENZ Package insert (September 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells, culture medium, ß-propiolactone, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
- Vaccine ingredients: MF59C.1 adjuvant (MF59) [squalene, polysorbate 80, sorbitan trioleate, sodium citrate dihydrate, citric acid monohydrate], protein other than HA, MDCK cell protein, MDCK cell DNA, polysorbate 80, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, ß-propiolactone, thimerosal
Influenza A (H5N1)
(bird flu)
Ebola Zaire Vaccine, Live
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- ERVEBO Package insert (2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:serum-free Vero cell cultures
- Vaccine ingredients: Tromethamine (Tris), rice-derived recombinant human serum albumin, host cell DNA, benzonase, rice protein
Japanese encephalitis
Japanese Encephalitis Virus Vaccine, Inactivated, Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: Valneva Austria GmbH
- Ixiaro
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Vero cells, protamine sulfate, sucrose density gradient, formaldehyde
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum hydroxide, formaldehyde, bovine serum albumin, host cell DNA, sodium metabisulphite, host cell protein, protamine sulfate
MMR
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella Virus Vaccine, Live
- Manufacturer: Merck, Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- M-M-R II Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:chick embryo cell culture; WI-38 human diploid lung fibroblasts, recombinant human serum albumin, fetal bovine serum
- Vaccine ingredients: sorbitol, sucrose, hydrolyzed gelatin, recombinant human albumin, fetal bovine serum, neomycin, other buffer and media ingredients
MMR and Varicella
(measles, mumps, rubella, & chickenpox)
Measles, Mumps, Rubella, and Varicella Virus Vaccine Live
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharpe & Dohme Corp
- ProQuad Refrigerator-Stable Formulation Package insert (October 2018)
- ProQuad Frozen Package insert (April 2021)
- ProQuad Refrigerated Package insert (October 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Refrigerator-Stable Formulation: chick embryo cell culture, WI-38 human diploid lung fibroblasts, MRC-5 cells
- Frozen Formulation – Recombinant Human Albumin (RHA): embryo cell culture; WI-38 human diploid lung fibroblasts, MRC-5 cells
- Frozen Formulation – Human SerumAlbumin (HSA): chick embryo cell culture, WI-38 human diploid lung fibroblasts, MRC-5 cells
- Frozen: chick embryo cell culture, WI-38 human diploid lung, MRC-5 cells
- Refrigerated: chick embryo cell culture, WI-38 human diploid lung fibroblasts, MRC-5 cells
- Vaccine ingredients: Refrigerator-Stable Formulation: sucrose, hydrolyzed gelatin, urea, sodium chloride, sorbitol, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate, recombinant human albumin, sodium bicarbonate, potassium phosphate, potassium chloride, residual components of MRC-5 cells including DNA and protein, neomycin, bovine serum albumin, other buffer and media ingredients
- Frozen Formulation – Recombinant Human Albumin (RHA): sucrose, hydrolyzed gelatin, sodium chloride, sorbitol, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, recombinant human albumin, sodium bicarbonate, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride; potassium phosphate dibasic, residual components of MRC-5 cells including DNA and protein, neomycin, bovine calf serum, other buffer and media ingredients
- Frozen Formulation – Human SerumAlbumin (HSA): sucrose, hydrolyzed gelatin, urea, sodium chloride, sorbitol, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate, recombinant human albumin, sodium bicarbonate, potassium phosphate, potassium chloride, residual components of MRC-5 cells including DNA and protein, neomycin, bovine serum albumin, other buffer and media ingredients
- Frozen: sucrose, hydrolyzed gelatin, sodium chloride, sorbitol, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, recombinant human albumin, sodium bicarbonate, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride, potassium phosphate dibasic, residual components from the manufacturing process [MRC-5 cells including DNA and protein, neomycin, bovine calf serum, other buffer and media ingredients]
- Refrigerated: sucrose, sorbitol, hydrolyzed gelatin, urea, sodium chloride, sodium phosphate, monosodium L-glutamate, recombinant human albumin, sodium bicarbonate, potassium phosphate, potassium chloride, residual components from the manufacturing process [MRC-5 cells including DNA and protein, neomycin, bovine calf serum, other buffer and media ingredients]
Meningococcal
Meningococcal (Groups A, C, Y, and W-135) Oligosaccharide Diphtheria CRM197 Conjugate Vaccine
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals SA
- Menveo Package insert (July 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Franz Complete medium, formaldehyde, CY medium [yeast extracts, amino acids]
- Vaccine ingredients: formaldehyde
Meningococcal (Groups A, C, Y and W-135) Polysaccharide Diphtheria Toxoid Conjugate Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Inc.
- Menactra Package insert (April 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:sMueller Hinton agar, Watson Scherp media [casamino acid], modified culture medium [hydrolyzed casein], formaldehyde, ammonium sulfate
- Vaccine ingredients: sodium phosphate buffered isotonic sodium chloride solution, formaldehyde
Meningococcal Group B Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Inc
- BEXSERO Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Escherichia coli, deoxycholate, aluminum hydroxide
- Vaccine ingredients: Neisserial adhesin A (NadA), Neisserial Heparin Binding Antigen (NHBA), factor H binding protein (fHbp), outer membrane vesicles (OMV), aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, histidine, sucrose, kanamycin
Meningococcal Group B Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
- TRUMENBA Package insert (2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:E. coli, fermentation growth media, polysorbate 80 (PS80)
- Vaccine ingredients: polysorbate 80, Al³+ as AlPO4, histidine buffered saline
Meningococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine, Groups A, C, Y and W-135 Combined
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur Inc.
- Menomune-A/C/Y/W-135 Package insert (March 14, 2016)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Mueller Hinton casein agar, Watson Scherp casamino acid media
- Vaccine ingredients: water, thimerosal, polysaccharide from each of serogroups A, C, Y, and W-135, lactose
Meningococcal (Groups A, C, Y, W) Conjugate Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, Inc.
- MenQuadfi Package insert (October 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Mueller Hinton agar medium, Watson Scherp medium, carbonyldiimidazole (CDI), adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH), periodate, ammonium sulfate, formaldehyde
- Vaccine ingredients: sodium chloride, sodium acetate, formaldehyde
Pneumococcal
(pneumonia)
Pneumococcal Vaccine, Polyvalent
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- Pneumovax 23 Package insert (April 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:n/a
- Vaccine ingredients: isotonic saline solution, phenol
Pneumococcal 13-valent Conjugate Vaccine (Diphtheria CRM197 Protein)
- Manufacturer: Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
- Prevnar 13 Package insert (August 2017)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:soy peptone broth, casamino acids and yeast extract-based medium, chemically-defined medium, ammonium sulfate
- Vaccine ingredients: polysorbate 80, succinate buffer, aluminum phosphate
Pneumococcal 15-valent Conjugate Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- VAXNEUVANCE Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:growth media [yeast extract, dextrose, salts, soy peptone], glycerol-based chemically-defined salt medium, aluminum phosphate, histidine, polysorbate 20, sodium chloride.
- Vaccine ingredients: L-histidine, polysorbate 20, sodium chloride, aluminum phosphate
Pneumococcal 20-valent Conjugate Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, LLC
- Prevnar 20 Package insert (June 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:soy peptone broth, casamino acids and yeast extract-based medium, chemically defined medium
- Vaccine ingredients: polysorbate 80, succinate buffer, sodium chloride, aluminum phosphate
Polio
Poliovirus Vaccine Inactivated (Monkey Kidney Cell)
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, SA
- IPOL Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Vero cells, Eagle MEM modified medium, newborn calf bovine serum, M-199 [without calf bovine serum], formalin
- Vaccine ingredients: M-199 medium, 2-phenoxyethanol, formaldehyde, neomycin, streptomycin, polymyxin B, calf bovine serum albumin
Rabies
Rabies Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur SA
- Imovax Package insert (October 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:human diploid cells [MRC-5 strain], beta-propiolactone
- Vaccine ingredients: human albumin, neomycin sulfate, phenol red indicator, beta-propiolactone
Rabies Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics
- RabAvert Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:chicken fibroblasts, synthetic cell culture medium [with added human albumin, polygeline (processed bovine gelatin), antibiotics], β-propiolactone, sucrose density gradient, stabilizer solution [buffered polygeline, potassium glutamate]
- Vaccine ingredients: polygeline (processed bovine gelatin), human serum albumin, potassium glutamate, sodium EDTA, bovine serum, chicken protein, ovalbumin, neomycin, chlortetracycline, amphotericin B
Rotavirus
Rotavirus Vaccine, Live, Oral
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- ROTARIX Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Vero cells
- Vaccine ingredients: amino acids, dextran, Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) [sodium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium sulfate, ferric (III) nitrate, sodium phosphate, sodium pyruvate, D-glucose, concentrated vitamin solution, L-cystine, L-tyrosine, amino acids solution, Lglutamine, calcium chloride, sodium hydrogenocarbonate, phenol red], sorbitol, sucrose, Porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV-1), liquid diluent [calcium carbonate, sterile water, xanthan, calcium carbonate]
Rotavirus Vaccine, Live, Oral, Pentavalent
- Manufacturer: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.
- RotaTeq Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Vero cells, buffered stabilizer solution
- Vaccine ingredients: sucrose, sodium citrate, sodium phosphate monobasic monohydrate, sodium hydroxide, polysorbate 80, cell culture media, fetal bovine serum
Smallpox & mpox/monkeypox
Smallpox and Mpox/Monkeypox Vaccine, Live, Non-Replicating
- Manufacturer: Bavarian Nordic A/S
- JYNNEOS Package insert (June 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells, serum-free medium
- Vaccine ingredients: Tris (tromethamine), sodium chloride, host-cell DNA, protein, benzonase, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin
Smallpox
Smallpox (Vaccinia) Vaccine, Live
- Manufacturer: Emergent Product Development Gaithersburg, Inc.
- ACAM2000 Package insert (April 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:African Green Monkey kidney (Vero) cells
- Vaccine ingredients: HEPES, human serum albumin, sodium chloride, mannitol, neomycin, polymyxin B, diluent [glycerin, phenol, water]
TD
(tetanus & diphtheria)
Tetanus & Diphtheria Toxoids, Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: MassBiologics
- TDVAX (NDC 14362-0111) Package insert (September 2018)
- TDVAX (NDC 13533-131) Package insert (September 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:TDVAX (NDC 14362-0111): modified Mueller’s media, formaldehyde, ammonium sulfate, aluminum phosphate
- TDVAX (NDC 13533-131): modified Mueller’s media, formaldehyde, ammonium sulfate, aluminum phosphate
- Vaccine ingredients: TDVAX (NDC 14362-0111): aluminum, formaldehyde, thimerosal
- TDVAX (NDC 13533-131): aluminum, formaldehyde, thimerosal
Tetanus & Diphtheria Toxoids Adsorbed for Adult Use
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, Ltd.
- TENIVAC Package insert (November 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:modified Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, formaldehyde, ammonium sulfate, modified Mueller’s growth medium, aluminum phosphate
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum phosphate, formaldehyde, sodium chloride, water
Diphtheria & Tetanus Toxoid Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, Inc
- Package insert (June 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:formalin, culture medium [casein, cystine, maltose, uracil, inorganic salts, vitamins]
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum phosphate, isotonic sodium chloride solution, free formaldehyde
Tdap
(tetanus, diphtheria, & pertussis)
Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine, Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, Ltd.
- Adacel Package insert (December 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Stainer-Scholte medium, casamino acids, dimethylbeta-cyclodextrin, glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, aluminum phosphate, Mueller-Miller casamino acid medium without beef heart infusion, ammonium sulfate, modified Mueller’s growth medium
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum phosphate, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, 2-phenoxyethanol, water
Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine, Adsorbed
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- Boostrix Package insert (September 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:modified Latham medium derived from bovine casein, Fenton medium containing a bovine extract, formaldehyde, modified Stainer-Scholte liquid medium, glutaraldehyde, aluminum hydroxide
- Vaccine ingredients: aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, formaldehyde, polysorbate 80 (Tween 80)
Tick-borne encephalitis
Tick-Borne Encephalitis Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Pfizer Ireland Pharmaceuticals
- TICOVAC Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:schick embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells, formaldehyde, sucrose gradient, aluminum hydroxide
- Vaccine ingredients: human serum albumin, aluminum hydroxide, sodium chloride, dibasic sodium phosphate, monobasic potassium phosphate, formaldehyde, sucrose, protamine sulfate, chick protein, DNA from CEF cells, neomycin, gentamicin
Typhoid
Typhoid Vaccine Live Oral Ty21a
- Manufacturer: Berna Biotech, Ltd.
- Vivotif Package insert (September 2013)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:gelatin capsules, sucrose, ascorbic acid, amino acid mixture, lactose, magnesium stearate
- Vaccine ingredients: gelatin capsules, sucrose, ascorbic acid, amino acid mixture, lactose, magnesium stearate
Typhoid Vaccine Live Oral TTyphoid Vi Polysaccharide Vacciney21a
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur SA
- TYPHIM Vi Package insert (March 2020)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:semisynthetic medium, casein derived raw materials, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, formaldehyde
- Vaccine ingredients: formaldehyde, phenol, polydimethylsiloxane, fatty-acid ester-based antifoam, isotonic phosphate buffered saline, sodium chloride, disodium phosphate, monosodium phosphate, water
Varicella
(chickenpox)
Varicella Virus Vaccine Live
- Manufacturer: Merck Shark & Dohme Corp.
- Varivax Frozen Package insert (undated)
- Varivax Refrigerator Package insert (undated)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Frozen: human embryonic lung cell cultures, embryonic guinea pig cell cultures, human diploid cell cultures (WI-38)
- Refrigerator: human embryonic lung cell cultures, embryonic guinea pig cell cultures, human diploid cell cultures (WI-38)
- Vaccine ingredients: Frozen: sucrose, phosphate, glutamate, processed gelatin, sodium chloride, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride. MRC-5 cells [DNA, protein], sodium phosphate monobasic, EDTA, neomycin, fetal bovine serum
- Refrigerator: sucrose, phosphate, glutamate, processed gelatin, urea, sucrose, hydrolyzed gelatin, sodium chloride, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride, MRC-5 cells [DNA, protein], neomycin, bovine calf serum
Yellow Fever
Yellow Fever Vaccine
- Manufacturer: Sanofi Pasteur, Inc.
- YF-Vax Package insert (February 2019)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:sliving avian leukosis virus-free (ALV-free) chicken embryos
- Vaccine ingredients: sorbitol, gelatin, sterile diluent [sodium chloride injection]
Zoster
(shingles)
Zoster Vaccine, Live, (Oka/Merck)
- Manufacturer: Merck & Co., Inc
- Zostavax Frozen Package insert (January 2019)
- Zostavax Refrigerator Stable Package insert (August 2018)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:Frozen: n/a
- Refrigerator Stable: n/a
- Vaccine ingredients: Frozen: sucrose, hydrolyzed porcine gelatin, sodium chloride, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride, MRC-5 cells [DNA, protein], neomycin, bovine calf serumsucrose, hydrolyzed porcine gelatin, sodium chloride, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride, MRC-5 cells [DNA, protein], neomycin, bovine calf serum
- Refrigerator Stable: sucrose, hydrolyzed porcine gelatin, urea, sodium chloride, monosodium L-glutamate, sodium phosphate dibasic, potassium phosphate monobasic, potassium chloride, MRC-5 cells [DNA, protein], neomycin, bovine calf serum
Zoster Vaccine Recombinant, Adjuvanted
- Manufacturer: GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals
- SHINGRIX Package insert (July 2021)
- Growth mediums and process ingredients:genetically engineered Chinese hamster ovary cells, growth media [amino acids], AS01B [3-O-desacyl-4’-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) from Salmonella minnesota, QS-21 (saponin purified from plant extract Quillaja saponaria Molina), liposomal formulation (dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine (DOPC), cholesterol, phosphate-buffered saline solution (disodium phosphate anhydrous, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride, water for injection))]
- Vaccine ingredients: sucrose, sodium chloride, DOPC, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, cholesterol, sodium dihydrogen phosphate dihydrate, disodium phosphate anhydrous, dipotassium phosphate, polysorbate 80, host cell proteins, host cell DNA
Glossary
| Product | Explanation of Product |
|---|---|
| 2-Phenoxyethanol | 2-Phenoxyethanol is a glycol ether used as a preservative in vaccines. |
| Aluminum | Aluminum is used in vaccines as an adjuvant, which helps the vaccine work more quickly and more powerfully. |
| Bovine casein | A casein is a family of phosphoproteins commonly found in mammalian milk. 80 percent of the proteins in cow’s milk are casein. |
| Bovine serum | "[T]he centrifuged fluid component of either clotted or defibrinated whole blood. Bovine serum comes from blood taken from domestic cattle. Serum from other animals is also collected and processed but bovine serum is processed in the greatest volume." |
| "Bovine serum is categorized according to the age of the animal from which the blood was collected as follows: ’Fetal bovine serum’ comes from fetuses; ’Newborn calf serum’ comes from calves less than three weeks old; ’Calf serum’ comes from calves aged between three weeks and 12 months; ’Adult bovine serum’ comes from cattle older than 12 months. Serum processed from donor blood is termed ’donor bovine serum’. Donor animals can be up to three years old." | |
| Chicken Eggs | Viruses can be grown in chicken eggs before being used in vaccinations. |
| CMRL-1969 | Common Ingredients: L-alanine, L-arginine (free base) b, L-aspartic acid, L-cysteine-HCL, L-cystine, L-glutamic acid-H20, L-glutamine, glycine, L-histidine (free base)b, L-hydroxyproline, L-isoleucine, L-leucine, L-lysine, L-methionine, L-phenylalanine, L-proline, L-serine, L-threonine, L-tryptophan, L-tyrosine, L-valine,p-aminobenzoic acid, ascorbic acid,d-biotin, calcium pantothenate, cholesterol, choline chloride, ethanol, folic acid, glutathione,i-inositol, menadione, nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, pyridoxal-HCL, pyridoxine-HCL, riboflavine, riboflavine-5-phosphate, sodium acetate-3H2O, thiamine-HCL, Tween 80, vitamin A acetate, vitamin D (calciferol), vitamin E (a-tocopherol phosphate), D-glucose, phenol red, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium culphate heptahydrate, sodium phosphate dibasic, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, monopotassium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate, iron nitrate nonahydrate |
| Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Serum | Common Ingredients: glucose, sodium bicarbonate, L-glutamine, pyridoxine HCl, pyridocal HCl, folic acid, phenol red, HEPES (2-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazin-1-yl]ethanesulfonic acid), L-methionine, L-cystine, sodium phosphate mono-basic, sodium pyruvate, vitamins |
| Earle’s Balanced Salt Medium | Common Ingredients: inorganic salts, D-glucose, phenol red, calcium, magnesium salts |
| Fenton Medium | bovine extract |
| Formaldehyde | Formaldehyde is used in vaccines to inactivate the virus so the person being inoculated does not contract the disease. |
| Human albumin | Human albumin is a blood plasma protein produced in the liver that, among other functions, transports hormones, fatty acids, and other compounds, and buffers pH. |
| Insect Cells | Cabbage moth and fall armyworm cells are used to grow viruses for vaccines. |
| Latham Medium | bovine casein |
| MDCK (Madin-Carby canine kidney cells) | Common Ingredients: Cells from normal female adult Cocker Spaniel (harvested in 1958 by SH Madin and NB Darby), EMEM(EBSS) (Eagle’s Minimum Essential Medium with Earle’s Balanced Salt Solution), glutamine, non essential amino acids, foetal bovine serum |
| Mouse Brains | Live mice brains are inoculated with the Japanese encephalitis virus to grow the virus used in the vaccine. |
| MRC-5 | Common Ingredients: Medical Research Council 5, human diploid cells (cells containing two sets of chromosomes) derived from the normal lung tissues of a 14-week-old male fetus aborted for "psychiatric reasons" in 1966 in the United Kingdom, Eagle’s Basal Medium in Earle’s balanced salt solution with bovine serum. |
| Mueller Hinton Agar | Common Ingredients: beef extract, acid hydrolysate of casein, starch, agar |
| Mueller-Miller Medium | Common Ingredients: glucose, sodium chloride, sodium phosphate dibasic, monopotassium, phosphate, magnesium sulfate hydrate, ferrous sulfate heptaphydrate, cystine hydrochloride, tyrosine hydrochloride, urasil hydrochloride, Ca-pantothenate in ethanol, thiamine in ethanol, pyridoxin-hydrochloride in ethanol, riboflavin in ethanol, biotin in ethanol, sodium hydroxide, beef heart infusion (de-fatted beef heart and distilled water), casein solution |
| Polysorbate 80 | Also called Tween 80, Alkest 80, or Canarcel 80 (brand names), Polysorbate 80 is used as an excipient (something to basically thicken a vaccine for proper dosing) and an emulsifier (something to bond the ingredients). |
| Porcine gelatin | Gelatin is used to protect viruses in vaccines from freeze-drying or heat and to stabilize vaccines so they stay stable. |
| Stainer-Scholte Liquid Medium | Common Ingredients: tris hydrochloride, tris base, glutamate (monosodium salt), proline, salt, monopotassium phosphate, potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, ferrous sulfate, ascorbic acid, niacin, glutathione |
| Thimerosal | Thimerosal is an organomercury compound used as a preservative. |
| Vero Cells (African Green Monkey Cells) | Vero cells were derived from the kidney of a normal, adult African Green monkey in 1962 by Y. Yasumura and Y. Kawakita. |
| WI-38 human diploid cells | Winstar Institute 38 is the human diploid lung fibroblasts derived from the lung tissues of a female fetus aborted because the family felt they had too many children in 1964 in the United States. |
Vaccine histories and impact
DTaP: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis
The CDC recommends that children receive the first dose of the DTaP vaccination at 2 months of age.
Diphtheria
Diphtheria, according to the CDC, is “a infection caused by Corynebacterium dipheriae” that “causes a thick covering in the back of the throat. It can lead to breathing problems, paralysis, heart failure, and even death.”[107] [106]
In 1826, Pierre Bretonneau, a French physician, called the disease diphtérite and distinguished diphtheria from scarlet fever. In 1883, Swiss-German pathologist Edwin Klebs identified the bacterium that causes diphtheria, and in 1884, Friedrich Loeffler first cultivated the bacterium, which resulted in its first name of Klebs-Loeffler bacterium (it is now called Corynebacterium diphtheria). In 1890 Kitasato Shibasaburo, a Japanese physician and bacteriologist, and Emil von Behring, a German physiologist who would win the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1901 for his work on diphtheria, successfully immunized guinea pigs with a heat-treated diphtheria toxin.[107] [106]
On October 16, 1894, two Cincinnati physicians successfully treated a two-year-old girl with a diphtheria antitoxin. On December 4, 1894, the New York City Board of Health regulated the purity and potency of diphtheria antitoxin. In 1895 the Mulford Company of Philadelphia (later Merck) and the New York City Health Department started producing and testing diphtheria antitoxin using guinea pigs and horses.[107] [106]
In 1897 Paul Ehrlich, a German scientist, developed a method to measure the potency of diphtheria antitoxin. In 1907 Emil von Behring demonstrated that mixing the diphtheria antitoxin and toxin provided a safe immunity to diphtheria in humans. In 1914 William H. Park developed a toxin/antitoxin mixture diphtheria immunization. In 1923 Gaston Ramon, French veterinarian and biologist at the Pasteur Institute in France, developed diphtheria toxoid that could later be used for a toxoid vaccination at the same time as Alexander Thomas Glenny, a London physician at Wellcome Research Laboratories. Glenny would develop the adjuvant (the substance that enhances the body’s immune response to an antigen) for the toxoid vaccine in 1926.[107] [106]
Tetanus (lockjaw)
Tetanus, according to the CDC, is “a serious disease that causes painful tightening of the muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to ‘locking’ of the jaw so the victim cannot open his mouth or swallow. Tetanus leads to death in about 1 in 10 cases.”[105] [104]
Records from the fifth century first describe tetanus. Giorgio Rattone and Antonio Carle, Italian scientists, first produced tetanus in animals by injecting them with pus from a human case in 1884, the same year Arthur Nicolaier, a German internist, produced tetanus in animals by injecting them with soil samples. In 1889, Kitasato Shibasaburo isolated the tetanus toxin from a human and proved that the toxin can be neutralized by antibodies. In 1897, Edmond Nocard, a French microbiologist and veterinarian, demonstrated passive immunization. Gaston Ramon inactivated the tetanus toxoid with formaldehyde in the early 1920s. In 1924, P. Descombey produced the tetanus toxoid that was used in the U.S. military during World War II. [105] [104]
Pertussis (whooping cough)
Pertussis (whooping cough), according to the CDC, “is a highly contagious respiratory tract infection. Although it initially resembles an ordinary cold, whooping cough may eventually turn more serious, especially in infants.”[103]
In 1900 Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou, Belgian scientists, first observed Bordetella pertussis and then isolated the pertussis bacterium in 1906, it was called Bordet-Gengou bacillus. In 1925 Thorvald Madsen, a Danish physician, tested the pertussis vaccine; the 1925 report suggested the vaccine was a success but a 1933 report stated that two children may have died from the vaccine. In 1939, the pertussis vaccine was shown to be effective by Pearl Kendrick and Grace Elderding American scientists.[103]
In 1948, the DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis) combination vaccine was developed. [102] [101] [100]
Hepatitis B
The CDC recommends that children receive the first dose of the hepatitis B vaccination at birth.
Hepatitis B (hep B), according to the CDC, is “a contagious virus that is transmitted through blood, blood products, and other body fluids (such as semen)… Symptoms include a sudden fever, tiredness, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, dark urine, joint pain, and yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice).”[102] [101] [100] [99] [98]
In 1965, Baruch Blumberg, an American doctor who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine (1976) for his work on hepatitis B, matched a protein found in an Australian Aboriginal’s blood with an antibody found in an American hemophiliac. First called the “Australian antigen,” it was discovered to be the hepatitis B virus and provided a source for the vaccine created in 1969. Because the virus could not be recreated in a lab, the first vaccine was a heat-treated form of the virus.[102] [101] [100] [99] [98]
In 1981, the FDA approved Heptavax-B, a vaccine created by Maurice Hilleman. Because Heptavax-B used human serum and the fear of HIV infection was high, a new recombinant DNA vaccine, Recombivax HB, was licensed on June 23, 1986 that did not use human serum. As of July 2014, two hepatitis B vaccines are used, Engerix-B and Recombivax, as well as Twinrix (a hepatitis A and hepatitis B combination vaccine). [102] [101] [100] [99] [98]
Hib
The CDC recommends that children receive the first dose of Hib vaccination at two months of age.
Haemophilus influenza (which includes Haemophilus influenza type B, or Hib), according to the CDC, is “a bacterium that can cause severe infection, occurring mostly in infants and children younger than five years of age. In spite of its name, Haemophilus influenza does not cause influenza (the ‘flu’). It can cause lifelong disability and be deadly.”[102] [101] [100] [88] [87]
In 1892, Richard Pfeiffer, a German physicist, isolated a bacterium from the lungs of flu patients that would be called “Pfeiffer influenza bacillus” in 1896 by Karl Lehmann and Rudolf Neuman in Atlas and Principles of Bacteriology. The bacterium was assumed to cause influenza. In the 1930s, researchers established that influenza was caused by a virus and not a bacterium so “Pfeiffer influenza bacillus” was renamed Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) as a nod to the incorrect association with the flu. In 1931, Margaret Pittman, an American researcher, linked Hib to meningitis. Later it would be confirmed that Hib can cause other serious diseases including infections of the skin, blood, bones, and joints; pneumonia; and epiglottitis.[102] [101] [100] [88] [87]
Work on an Hib vaccine began in 1968 by Porter W. Anderson, Jr. and David Smith, which lead to a 1975 trial that showed the vaccine worked in infants but not toddlers. Smith founded a company to produce the vaccine when it was licensed in 1985 because no existing pharmaceutical company wanted to manufacture it. This HbPV polysaccharide vaccine was used until 1988. As of July 24, 2014, there are six Hib vaccines on the market (three for Hib only; one Hib/Hep B combination; one DTaP-IPV/Hib combination; and one meningococcal vaccine).[102] [101] [100] [88] [87]
Measles, mumps, and rubella
The CDC recommends that children receive the first dose of the MMR vaccination between 12 and 15 months of age.
Measles
The measles, according to the CDC, is “a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by the measles virus … Measles causes fever, runny nose, cough, and a rash all over the body. About one out of 10 children with measles also gets an ear infection, and up to one out of 20 gets pneumonia.”[102] [101] [100] [86] [82]
In 900 AD, Rhazes, a Persian physician, distinguished measles from smallpox. In 1676, Thomas Sydenham, an English physician, added more detail in the distinction between the viruses and also distinguished measles from scarlet fever. Francis Home, a Scottish physician, successfully infected healthy patients with blood from patients with measles in 1757. In 1916, Charles Nicolle and Ernest Conseil, French researchers, discovered that people with measles developed protective antibodies in their blood, making them immune to the disease; the researchers used a serum made of the antibodies to show that the antibodies could protect healthy people from the virus. On February 8, 1954, Thomas Peebles isolated the measles virus from a blood sample of 13-year-old David Edmonston. On October 15, 1958, Sam Katz, an infectious disease specialist who worked with Thomas Peebles, tested the first measles vaccine, which worked but caused measles symptoms.[102] [101] [100] [86] [82]
On February 8, 1960, researchers in Boston tested a measles vaccine on children with intellectual disabilities in New York; the vaccine was effective at preventing illness but caused many side effects. In 1961, Henry Rubin, a virologist, developed a method of growing vaccines in chicken eggs to prevent leukemia that proved useful for developing the measles vaccine. In 1962 a killed-virus measles vaccines failed. In 1963, John Enders, a biomedical scientist and the “Father of Modern Vaccines,” and his team proved their measles vaccine was safe and effective to the FDA; the vaccine was licensed the same year. In 1968, Maurice Hilleman, debuted an improved version of the vaccine created that eliminated the use of human blood proteins and is still used as of July 22, 2014. [102] [101] [100] [86] [82]
Mumps
Mumps, according to the CDC, is “a contagious disease that is caused by the mumps virus. Mumps typically starts with a few days of fever, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, and loss of appetite, and is followed by swelling of salivary glands.”[102] [101] [100] [85] [84] [82]
In 1945 the mumps virus was isolated. In 1948 an inactivated vaccine was developed but it provided only short-term immunity and its use was discontinued in the 1970s. On March 30, 1967, the FDA licensed Mumpsvax, a mumps vaccine developed by Maurice Hilleman that was created from the mumps virus that infected his five-year-old daughter, Jeryl Lynn. This Jeryl Lynn strain of live attenuated mumps virus vaccine is still used today. [102] [101] [100] [85] [84] [82]
Rubella (German measles)
Rubella, according to the CDC, is “a disease caused by a virus. The infection is usually mild with fever and rash. But, if a pregnant woman gets infected, the virus can cause serious birth defects.”[102] [101] [100] [83] [82]
In 1740, Friedrich Hoffmann, German physician, gave the first clinical description of “German measles” (“Rötheln” in German) In 1841 the virus was referred to as “rubella” (meaning “little red”) in connection with an outbreak at a school in India. In 1866, Henry Veale, English surgeon, suggested renaming the virus “Rubella” to replace “Rötheln.”[102] [101] [100] [83] [82]
In 1938, S. Tasaka and Y. Hiro, Japanese scientists, successfully transmitted rubella from sick children to healthy children but did not find the causative agent of the disease. In 1960 the rubella virus was isolated by Thomas Weller, a Harvard School of Public Health researcher, from his 10-year-old son who was infected with the virus. The first mumps vaccine was created by Maurice Hilleman, was first used in 1969.[102] [101] [100] [83] [82]
In 1971, the combination MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccine was licensed for use.[102] [101] [100] [83] [82]
In 2005, a combination MMRV (measles, mumps, rubella, varicella) vaccine was licensed for use. [102] [101] [100] [83] [82]
Polio
The CDC recommends that children receive the first dose of the polio (IPV) vaccination at 2 months of age.[102] [101] [100] [79] [77] [73]
Polio, according to the CDC, is an incurable, “crippling and potentially deadly infectious disease caused by a virus that spreads from person to person invading the brain and spinal cord and causing paralysis.”[102] [101] [100] [79] [77] [73]
Polio was not discovered to be contagious until 1905 by Swedish physician Ivar Wickham. In 1908, Karl Lansdteiner and Erwin Popper identified and isolated the polio virus. The idea of a vaccine against polio was first introduced in 1910 as a result of research by Simon Flexner. In 1935 two teams tested a polio vaccine but neither were successful and both teams infected and killed some test subjects (the scientists, chimpanzees, human adults, and children). In 1951, Jonas Salk and his team developed a method to cultivate polio virus in monkey kidney tissue in order to be able to produce large amounts of the vaccine. On April 12, 1955, the results of the Salk vaccine trials showed the vaccine was 80-90 percent effective and the US government licensed the IPV (inactivated polio vaccine) vaccine the same day. The vaccination program was suspended on May 8, 1955 to investigate paralysis resulting from the vaccine injection; changes to the production method were made and vaccination resumed on May 27, 1955. On August 24, 1960, a polio vaccine (OPV; oral polio vaccine) created by Albert Sabin, was licensed for use in the US and recommended by US Surgeon General Leroy E. Burney. In 1968 U.S. use of Salk’s IPV vaccine was phased out. Polio was declared eradicated in the Americas on September 29, 1994 by the Pan American Health Organization. An improved version of Jonas Salk’s IPV vaccine was phased in again in 1997, because OPV had an increased risk of infecting children with the virus in the first dose. In 2000 the transition to all-IPV vaccine schedule was complete. [102] [101] [100] [79] [77] [73]
Varicella (chickenpox)
The CDC recommends that children receive the first dose of the varicella vaccination between 12 and 18 months of age.
Varicella, according to the CDC, is “a very contagious disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV). It causes a blister-like rash, itching, tiredness, and fever.”[102] [101] [100] [72]
In 1767, English doctor William Heberden first distinguished chickenpox (varicella) from smallpox (variola major and variola minor). In 1892, Hungarian pediatrics professor James Bokay wrote of the connection between chickenpox and later contraction of shingles; his theory was be proven correct in 1925 by K. Kundratitz. Thomas Weller first isolated the varicella virus in 1953. In 1974, Michiaki Takahashi attenutated (keeping the virus live but weakening it so that it is essentially harmless) the varicella virus, creating a vaccination. A version of that vaccine, Varivax, was licensed and used in the United States in 1995 and, as of June 25, 2014, remains the only varicella vaccination used in the United States. [102] [101] [100] [72]