Fireworks

A firework, as Encyclopaedia Britannica explains, is simply an “explosive or combustible used for display.”[1]

Who first invented fireworks will likely never be known. Many scholars believe they were accidentally invented in ancient China when the Chinese tossed bamboo into a fire about 200 bce, hoping for warmth. However, when heated, the air trapped in pockets inside green bamboo compresses and bursts with a loud bang. To some, such noise-makers could be useful in scaring off evil spirits and predatory animals. [2] [3]

Fireworks didn’t really explode, literally or figuratively, until about 800 ce, when gunpowder was invented—again, accidentally—by an alchemist who combined sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate in a search for eternal life. The mixture instead caught fire and exploded. The Chinese then packed the powder into bamboo, and later, paper, to create fireworks. However, notes science writer Alexis Stempien,

If you attended a fireworks show in 800 [ce], it would be unlike anything we see today. Paper fireworks were used to scare evil spirits or to celebrate weddings and births and were simply thrown onto a fire, not blasted into the air. There were no added colors, so a “fireworks show” was just a series of small, noisy explosions. [2]

By the 12th century fireworks were being used for entertainment at the Chinese imperial court. An early description of a Chinese paper firework found in the 1264 book Ch’in yeh-yu (“Rustic Tales in Eastern Ch’i”) by Chou Mi details the “ground rat” or “earth rat,” which consisted of a bamboo tube filled with gunpowder with a small hole for gases to escape. When the tube was lighted, it skittered across the floor in all directions. Gunpowder, of course, led to the creation of guns, and the “ground rat” firecracker likely contributed to the discovery of rocket propulsion. [4] [5]

By the 14th century Chinese fireworks had made their way to Europe, though their exact route is unclear. Whether via Crusaders, missionaries, or other traveling Europeans, fireworks arrived from China via the Middle East to Italy and then spread to the rest of Europe. Early Italian fireworks were often embedded within elaborate effigies and stage settings called “fireworks machines” (machina di fuochi artifiziati). If the fireworks were pointed outward, the structure would shoot fire and sparks. If pointed inward, the fireworks would propel the structure to move. By the 16th century celebratory fireworks were so well entrenched across Europe that they were frequent subjects of artists, and the “pyrotechnist” had become an established profession by the 17th century; these firework specialists were frequently called “green men,” because they covered themselves with fresh green leaves for protection from sparks and to avoid catching fire. [5] [6] [7]

As Encyclopaedia Britannica notes,

The celebratory display of fireworks we know today evolved out of the use of fireworks in romantic performances of combat and in elaborate pageants and plays, typically associated with national events. England’s King Henry VII, whose royal standard bore the Red Dragon, included fireworks at his wedding in 1486, the first known use of fireworks at a national celebration, and his wife’s [Elizabeth of York] coronation in 1487 featured a fire-breathing dragon, which became popular in royal fireworks displays during the reign of the Tudors. Queen Elizabeth I (ruled 1558–1603) was so fond of fireworks in performances that she even appointed a royal “Fire Master of England” to coordinate shows. After Robert Catesby’s Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament was foiled, fireworks were used locally in the annual commemoration of the event, sometimes called Fireworks Night [also called Guy Fawkes Night/Day]. [8]

These early fireworks shows, however, were still a far cry from those we’re accustomed to today. A review of John Withington’s book A History of Fireworks: From Their Origins to the Present Day lists some of the more bizarre implementations:

Boxing matches performed by actors wearing asbestos overalls under a layer of fireworks. A burning effigy of the Pope, stuffed with live cats for maximum audiovisual impact. Explosive reenactments of battles, within days of the real thing. A nine-meter-high portrait of Queen Victoria, encircled by the flags of the British Empire. Full-size animations of dramatic rail crashes. A pyrotechnic Father Thames riding a dolphin along the river. The destruction of Pompeii, complete with performers and an erupting volcano. Fireworks coordinated with scratch-and-sniff cards for a multisensory experience. [9]

The colors of fireworks also evolved over time. As noted in David Sommers’s color blog, for nearly 1,000 years, the only colors that could be produced by fireworks were orange sparks from black powder and white sparks from metal powders. But these limitations were lifted in the 1830s, when scientific breakthroughs enabled pyrotechnicians in southern Italy

to create reds, greens, blues, and yellows by adding both a metallic salt (strontium = red, barium = green, copper = blue, sodium = yellow) and a chlorinated powder to the firework composition. Potassium chlorate (KClO₃), a new oxidizer that burned faster and hotter than potassium nitrate, allowed pyrotechnicians to make the new colors deeper and brighter. The harnessing of electrical energy made it possible to obtain pure magnesium and aluminum by electrolysis, which also made fireworks burn brighter. When fine aluminum powder was mixed proportionally with an oxidizer, the resulting mixture—flash powder—burned much hotter and faster than black powder, allowing for the manufacture of louder firecrackers and salutes in aerial fireworks. [10]

Key to these developments were the Italian Ruggieri brothers, who left Bologna, Italy, in 1739 for Paris, where they launched their brilliant career as pyrotechnicians to the royal courts of Europe. Today Ruggieri is one of the premier pyrotechnic companies in the world, renowned for theatrical multimedia shows, including fireworks, lasers, and drones. [11] [7]

Fireworks were also popular in colonial America, nearly from the very moment European settlers set foot on the continent. The first recorded fireworks display in American history occurred in 1608 near Jamestown, site of the first permanent English settlement in North America, located near present-day Williamsburg, Virginia. Captain John Smith wrote of the event: “In the evening we fired a few rackets, which flying in the ayre so terrified the poore Salvages, they supposed nothing unpossible we attempted; and desired to assist us.”[5] [12] [68]

Thus, after voting for independence in July 1776, John Adams was simply invoking an already popular method of celebration when he wrote in a letter to his wife, Abigail, on July 3, 1776,

I am apt to believe that it [Independence Day] will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations [fireworks] from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. [5] [8] [12] [13]

In the 21st century fireworks are a global phenomenon used for celebrating everything from holidays, weddings, and weekend family barbecues to events as varied as concerts, sporting competitions, and political conventions. Their popularity is evidenced by the fact that fireworks were an estimated $3.33 billion industry globally in 2025 (up from $2.72 billion in 2024). The vast majority of the industry is made up of legal fireworks sold to consumers, with a small percentage derived from professional pyrotechnics. The fireworks industry is projected to grow to $6.5 billion by 2033. [14] [15] [16] [17]

And, in case you’re wondering, the largest fireworks display, according to Guinness World Records, was sponsored by the Church of Christ (Iglesia Ni Cristo) for its 2016 New Year celebration held outside the Philippine Arena north of Manila. The show attracted about 100,000 spectators and consisted of 810,904 fireworks that illuminated the sky for just over an hour in the pouring rain. [18]

But despite the fun and fanfare associated with fireworks, some see downsides to such spectacles, leading to the question of whether fireworks should be banned. Explore the debate below.

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Discussion questions

1. Should fireworks be banned? Why or why not?
2. If not banned, should fireworks be regulated more closely by local, state, or federal governments? Explain your answer.
3. Explore videos of fireworks alternatives, such as drone shows. Compare and contrast the alternatives to traditional fireworks. Which do you prefer and why?
4. What questions do you have after reading the debate above? Where might you find answers?
5. What was the most interesting thing you learned from this debate?
6. Consider how you felt about the issue before reading this article. After reading the pros and cons on this topic, has your thinking changed? How and why? If your thoughts have not changed, explain how and why you better understand the other side of the debate.
7. Push for the position and policies you support by writing local officials, U.S. senators and representatives, or other people in a position to make the change you champion.