• coin

  / Origins of coins
• coin

  / From Alexander the Great to the end of the Roman Republic, c. 336–31 bc
• education

  / The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China
• Ethics

  / The Middle East
• Historiography

  / Egypt and Mesopotamia
• Afrocentrism

  / Beliefs
• statute labour
• history of the organization of work

  / The ancient world
• nome
• pharaoh
• police

  / Ancient policing

• Middle Eastern religion

  / Nature: the framework of ideas and practices
• Grape

  / Domestication and history
• river

  / Significance in early human settlements
• origins of agriculture

  / The Nile valley

• amulet
• doll
• fool
• greeting card

  / Early greeting cards
• tomb

• ring
• dress

  / Ancient Egypt
• jewelry

  / Egyptian
• beard
• dreadlocks

  / Global history of the hairstyle
• kohl

  / History

• Indian Ocean

  / Early exploration
• Nile River

  / Study and exploration

• Aegean civilizations

  / Dating of the Aegean Bronze Age
• Aleppo

  / History
• Byblos
• Cyprus

  / Assyrian and Egyptian domination
• Darfur

  / History
• Fatimid dynasty

  / Conquest of Egypt
• al-Muʿizz
• Kadesh
• Karmah
• Alexander the Great

  / Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt
• ancient Greek civilization

  / Alexander in Egypt
• ancient Middle East

  / Mesopotamia and Egypt to c. 1600 bce
• history of Mesopotamia

  / The Hurrian and Mitanni kingdoms
• Nubia
• Sudan

  / Ancient Nubia
• Palestine

  / Late Bronze Age
• Lebanon

  / Origins and relations with Egypt
• Antiochus IV Epiphanes

  / Early career
• Tefnakhte
• Tyre
• Ugarit

  / The Middle Bronze Age period

• alcohol consumption

  / In early societies
• bloodletting

  / The history of bloodletting
• malaria

  / Malaria through history
• tuberculosis

  / Tuberculosis through history

• warship

  / The age of oar and ram

• Ptolemy
• physical science

  / Ancient Middle Eastern and Greek astronomy
• astronomical map

  / The decans
• biology

  / Biological knowledge of Egyptians, Chinese, and Indians
• dentistry

  / Early dentistry
• history of science

  / The Middle East
• history of medicine

  / The ancient Middle East and Egypt
• hour

• boxing

  / Early years
• sports

  / Egypt
• hunting

  / Ancient history

• adhesive
• concrete
• masonry
• construction

  / Stone construction in Egypt
• calendar
• calendar

  / The Egyptian calendar
• Suez Canal

  / Construction
• chronology

  / Egyptian
• sundial
• history of technology

  / Irrigation
• information processing

  / Inventory of recorded information
• lock

  / Early history.
• map

  / Maps and geography in the ancient world
• surveying

  / History
• papyrus
• papermaking
• history of publishing

  / The Egyptian papyrus roll
• road

  / Egypt
• hand tool

  / Early metal designs
• hand tool

  / Plumb line, level, and square
• tunnels and underground excavations

  / Ancient tunnels
• measurement system

  / The Egyptians

• figurehead

From prehistory to the Second Intermediate Period

The most-detailed presentation of Egyptian history, with full bibliographies arranged by subject, is the multivolume Cambridge Ancient History, though vol. 1 and 2 no longer reflect current knowledge. More recent overviews are presented in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (2003); and Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (1992; originally published in French, 1988). A more anthropological perspective is found in Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, 2nd ed. (2003). Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, and Wolhart Westendorf (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie (1975– ), is the basic reference work in Egyptology, of which 6 vol. had appeared by 1986 with an additional volume of corrections and indexes by Wolfgang Helck published in 1992.

Michael A. Hoffman, Egypt Before the Pharaohs: The Prehistoric Foundations of Egyptian Civilization (1979, reissued 1984); and Béatrix Midant-Reynes, The Prehistory of Egypt from the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs (2000; originally published in French, 1992), are comprehensive general works on prehistory; while Lech Krzyżaniak, Early Farming Cultures on the Lower Nile: The Predynastic Period in Egypt (1977), focuses on the transition to agriculture and on Lower Egypt.

General studies include Cyril Aldred, The Egyptians, rev. ed. (1984); and John Ruffle, Heritage of the Pharaohs: An Introduction to Egyptian Archaeology (1977); as well as other works cited below under the specific periods on which they focus. General histories include B.G. Trigger et al., Ancient Egypt: A Social History (1983), containing four essays on the main periods, concentrating on relations with Africa and including valuable bibliographies; and Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (1961), a personal history, notable for the use made of ancient Egyptian texts. William W. Hallo and William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History (1971), is a reliable brief introduction; and Étienne Drioton and Jacques Vandier, L’Égypte: des origines à la conquête d’Alexandre, 4th ed. (1962, reprinted 1984), remains valuable for its critical discussions.

A detailed discussion of various historical periods can be found in Toby A.H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt (2001; originally published, 1999); Jean Vercoutter, L’Égypte et la vallée du Nil: tome 1, des origines à la fin de l’Ancien Empire 12000–2000 av. J.C. (1992); and Claude Vandersleyen, L’Égypte et la vallée du Nil: tome 2, de la fin de l’Ancien Empire à la fin du Nouvel Empire (1995). John A. Wilson, The Burden of Egypt: An Interpretation of Ancient Egyptian Culture (1951, reprinted 1965), is a selective historical study. William C. Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt, 2 vol. (1953–59), is a detailed cultural history of Egypt to the end of the 20th dynasty, based on the collections in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

Wolfgang Helck, Geschichte des alten Ägypten (1968, reprinted 1981), is still the best general history; his Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr., 2nd ed. (1971), is the fundamental work on foreign relations, and his Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Ägypten im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend vor Chr. (1975) covers institutions and economics. Rolf Krauss, Sothis- und Monddaten: Studien zur astronomischen und technischen Chronologie Altägyptens (1985), is a vital chronological study for the 2nd and 1st millennia bce; its dates are adopted in this article with minor variations.

John Baines and Jaromír Málek, Atlas of Ancient Egypt (1980), is a concise geographically oriented survey. Hermann Kees, Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography (1961, reprinted 1977; originally published in German, 2nd ed., 1958; 3rd German ed., 1977), studies a number of major sites in depth. Karl W. Butzer, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology (1976), is a useful discussion of geographic and environmental conditions and their relation to the development of ancient Egyptian civilization.

Claude Vandersleyen et al., Das alte Ägypten (1975), is the most comprehensive survey of Egyptian art. W. Stevenson Smith, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, rev. ed., edited by William Kelly Simpson (1981), is an excellent general account; and, for the Old Kingdom, Smith’s History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting in the Old Kingdom, 2nd ed. (1949), is still a fundamental source.

Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, 3 vol. (1973–80), offers an excellent collection of texts in translation, covering the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms and the Late Period. A smaller selection of readings is available in William Kelly Simpson (ed.), The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry, new ed. (1973); while James B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. (1969), contains a wide selection of Egyptian material in translation.

Studies of administration include Klaus Baer, Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom (1960, reprinted 1974); to which Nigel Strudwick, The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders (1985), adds a vast amount of detail. Wolfgang Helck, Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reichs (1958), with a separately published index volume (1975), is the basic work on the succeeding periods.

From the New Kingdom to 332 bce

The rise of the New Kingdom is treated in Jürgen Von Beckerath, Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten (1964). Donald B. Redford, History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies (1967); and Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh (1996), include a reevaluation of Hatshepsut. An informative account of the New Kingdom empire at its height is David O’Connor and Eric H. Cline (eds.), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign (1998). For the controversial Amarna period, Rolf Krauss, Das Ende der Amarnazeit: Beitr. zur Geschichte u. Chronologie d. Neuen Reiches (1978); and Donald B. Redford, Akhenaten, the Heretic King (1984), offer strongly contrasting interpretations. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (1988), is a good collection of the overall evidence for the period; and inscriptions of the time are translated by William J. Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt (1995).

For the Ramesside period, K.A. Kitchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II King of Egypt (1982), sets its subject in context, presenting the New Kingdom in general as well as Ramses’ own reign. Edward F. Wente, Late Ramesside Letters (1967), deals with material from the end of the same period. The major work on the economy at that time is J.J. Janssen, Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period: An Economic Study of the Village of Necropolis Workmen at Thebes (1975). John Romer, Ancient Lives: Daily Life in Egypt of the Pharaohs (1984), presents the life of the same community. T.G.H. James, Pharaoh’s People: Scenes from Life in Imperial Egypt (1984), is concerned with lifestyles of higher ranks of society in the same general period.

K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 B.C.), 2nd rev. ed. (1986), is the basic work on the period. Hermann Kees, Das Priestertum im ägyptischen Staat, vom neuen Reich bis zur Spätzeit (1953), with an index volume, Indices und Nachträge (1958), is a comprehensive analysis of the Egyptian priesthoods. This fundamental institution of the Late Period is also valuably treated in Serge Sauneron, The Priests of Ancient Egypt (1960, reprinted 1980; originally published in French, 1957). The period from the Saite 26th dynasty until Alexander the Great is addressed in Friedrich K. Kienitz, Die politische Geschichte Ägyptens vom 7. bis 4. Jahrhundert vor der Zeitwende (1953), based on both Egyptian and Classical sources. Alan B. Lloyd, Herodotus, Book II, 2 vol. (1975–76), contains much material on the Late Period.