What were the Treaties of Tianjin of 1858?

The Treaties of Tianjin (1858) were a series of agreements negotiated between the Qing dynasty and foreign powers—primarily Britain and France—following the military defeat of China during the second Opium War. These agreements are categorized as unequal treaties, as they were forced upon China and significantly eroded its sovereignty.12

The treaties included several major concessions:
* Diplomatic access: Foreign envoys were granted the right to reside in Beijing.12
* Expanded trade: Ten new ports were opened to foreign trade and residence, and foreign navigation was permitted on the Yangtze River.1
* Travel and religion: Foreigners were granted the right to travel within the Chinese interior, and Christian missionaries were permitted to propagate their faith.12
* Legalization: The importation of opium was legalized, and the coolie trade was permitted.12

Because the Chinese government initially refused to ratify these agreements, hostilities resumed in 1859. The treaties were eventually enforced following the capture of Beijing by Anglo-French forces and the signing of the Beijing Convention in 1860.12