South America

Introduction
Geologic history
- The Precambrian
  - The Trans-Amazonian cycle
  - The Brazilian cycle
- The Paleozoic Era
  - Early Paleozoic events
  - The formation of Pangea
- The Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras
  - Events in the Mesozoic
  - The Andean orogeny
    - The Northern Andes
    - The Central Andes
    - The Southern Andes
  - Present geologic setting
The land
- Relief
  - The Andes Mountains
  - The plateaus
  - The lowlands
- Drainage
  - Rivers
  - Lakes
  - Marshes and swamps
- Soils
- Climate
  - Factors influencing climate
  - Climatic regions
    - Tropical climates
    - Temperate climates
    - Arid climates
    - Cold climates
- Plant life
  - Grasslands
    - Savannas
    - Pampas
  - Vegetation zones
    - Tropical and subtropical rainforests
    - Tropical deciduous forests
    - Caatinga
    - South Brazilian forests
    - Xerophytic associations
    - Subantarctic rainforests
    - Mountain vegetation
  - Human influences on vegetation
- Animal life
  - Principal faunal types
    - Fish and bird life
    - Mammals
    - Amphibians and reptiles
    - Arthropods
  - Ecological communities
    - The Amazonian and Guianan forests
    - East-central plateaus and lowlands
    - The Argentinian Pampas
    - The southern Chilean forests
    - The high Andes
    - The arid west coast
  - Human influences on wildlife
The people
- Ethnic origins and migrations
  - Indians
  - Iberians
  - Africans
  - Postindependence overseas immigrants
- Population and ecological distribution
  - The present population
  - Culture areas
    - American Indian heritage regions
    - African heritage regions
    - European heritage regions
  - Linguistic patterns
  - Religious patterns
  - Sociological changes
- Demographic patterns
  - The demographic transition and fertility
  - Effects of rapid population increase
The economy
- Resources
  - Mineral resources
    - Mineral fuels
    - Iron and ferroalloys
    - Nonferrous base metals
    - Precious metals and gemstones
    - Nonmetallic deposits
  - Biological resources
    - Botanical resources
    - Animal resources
- Forestry and fishing
- Agriculture
  - Principal crops
    - Food crops
    - Specialized cash crops
  - Livestock
- Industry
- Power and irrigation
- Trade
  - Internal trade
  - External trade
- Transportation
  - Roads
  - Railways
  - Maritime transport
  - Waterways
  - Air transportation
- Cultural life

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images & Videos

Map showing the countries of South America with national capitals and surrounding bodies of water, including the Atlantic and Pacific.

Paulo Afonso Falls

Villavincencio Chapel

Snow-capped Chimborazo Volcano rises above rolling hills and patchwork farmland in the Ecuadorian Andes under a cloudy sky.

Farmland in the Andean region of Peru

Patagonian Andes

Map of South America highlighting major physical features such as mountain ranges, highlands, basins, rivers, lakes, and islands. Key features include the Andes Mountains along the western edge, the Amazon Basin in the north-central region, the Brazilian Highlands in the east, the Pampas and Gran Chaco plains in the south, and major rivers like the Amazon, Orinoco, and Parana. Surrounding bodies of water, including the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Caribbean Sea, are also labeled. The map i

The Cauca River flows through lush green hills with the Andes Mountains rising in the background near Santa Fe de Antioquia, Colombia.

Lake Titicaca, near the Bolivian shore

At a Glance

default image

South America summary

South America: Media

continent

Videos

Explore one of the world's driest regions and learn why parts of Chile's Atacama Desert never see rainfall

Explore one of the world's driest regions and learn why parts of Chile's Atacama Desert never see rainfall

Atacama Desert, Chile.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Examine urbanization in South America by viewing Lima, Santiago, and Valparaíso

Examine urbanization in South America by viewing Lima, Santiago, and Valparaíso

Learn about modern urban life in South America, as seen in Lima, Peru, and Santiago...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The Significance of Gold in Inca Civilization

The Significance of Gold in Inca Civilization

Learn about the importance of gold to the Incas.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

Experience the contrasting landscapes of South America

Experience the contrasting landscapes of South America

A survey of South America's diverse landscapes.

Video: Vincent Urban & Clemens Krüger (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

History of the Strait of Magellan

History of the Strait of Magellan

Overview of the Strait of Magellan.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

Learn how the world is divided into continents

Learn how the world is divided into continents

The distribution of the seven continents.

Video: Created and produced by QA International. © QA International, 2010. All rights reserved. www.qa-international.com

Images

Map showing the countries of South America with national capitals and surrounding bodies of water, including the Atlantic and Pacific.

South America

Political map of South America.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Paulo Afonso Falls

Paulo Afonso Falls

Paulo Afonso Falls on the São Francisco River, Alagoas, Brazil.

Antonio Gusmao—TYBA/Agencia Fotografica Ltda.

Villavincencio Chapel

Villavincencio Chapel

Villavincencio Chapel in the Andes Mountains, Argentina.

A. D'Arazien/Shostal Associates

Patagonia

Patagonia

Patagonia region of Chile.

© agustavop— iStock/Getty Images

Snow-capped Chimborazo Volcano rises above rolling hills and patchwork farmland in the Ecuadorian Andes under a cloudy sky.

Chimborazo

Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes, northwestern South America.

© Leonardo/stock.adobe.com

Farmland in the Andean region of Peru

Farmland in the Andean region of Peru

Farmland stretching across the Andean region near Cuzco, Peru. The mountains of the...

© Robert Frerck/Stone

Patagonian Andes

Patagonian Andes

The Patagonian Andes, Torres del Paine National Park, Chile.

G. Ziesler/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Map of South America highlighting major physical features such as mountain ranges, highlands, basins, rivers, lakes, and islands. Key features include the Andes Mountains along the western edge, the Amazon Basin in the north-central region, the Brazilian Highlands in the east, the Pampas and Gran Chaco plains in the south, and major rivers like the Amazon, Orinoco, and Parana. Surrounding bodies of water, including the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Caribbean Sea, are also labeled. The map i

South America

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The Cauca River flows through lush green hills with the Andes Mountains rising in the background near Santa Fe de Antioquia, Colombia.

Cauca River, Colombia

The Cauca River in the Andes, Colombia.

© Jhampier Giron M/Shutterstock.com

Lake Titicaca, near the Bolivian shore

Lake Titicaca, near the Bolivian shore

© Andrea Aigner/stock.adobe.com

Wide waterfall cascading over rocky cliffs into a river, surrounded by green vegetation and flat-topped mountains in the distance.

tablelands, southern Venezuela

Tablelands called tepuis rise behind Hacha Falls on the Carrao River, in...

©Tony Morrison/South American Pictures

Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, with Sugar Loaf Mountain.

Jeremy Woodhouse—Digital Vision/Getty Images

Orinoco River, Venezuela

Orinoco River, Venezuela

Orinoco River near Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela.

Carl Purcell

Aerial view of the Pantanal wetland in Mato Grosso, Brazil, showing expansive flooded plains with patches of green vegetation and water plants, bordered by forest.

Aerial view of the Pantanal, south-central Brazil

© Uwe Bergwitz/stock.adobe.com

Negro River

Negro River

Negro River in the Amazon rain forest, northern Brazil.

Union Press/Bruce Coleman, Inc., New York

Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela

Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela

Houses on stilts on Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela.

Karl Weidmann—Photo Researchers

South American soil groups

South American soil groups

Distribution of South American soil groups as classified by the Food and Agriculture...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

coffee plantation

coffee plantation

Coffee growing on the middle slopes of the Cordillera Central near Chinchiná, Colombia.

Victor Englebert

Map of South America displaying major climate regions using color codes: dark green for tropical rainforest, yellow for tropical grasslands, orange for tropical semiarid, red for tropical desert, light green for humid subtropical, pink for subtropical desert, teal for temperate, light yellow for temperate grasslands, light pink for temperate desert, and brown for highland climates that vary with altitude. The Amazon Basin is predominantly rainforest, while grasslands and semiarid regions cover m

South America: major climate regions

South America's vast interior is dominated by tropical rainforest and grassland climates....

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

Atacama Desert

Atacama Desert

The Valley of the Moon, with Licancábur volcano in the background, Atacama Desert,...

Jeremy Woodhouse—Digital Vision/Getty Images

Close-up of a Carex vesicaria sedge plant with green, spiky flower spikes and slender grass-like leaves.

Sedge (Carex vesicaria)

© bennytrapp/stock.adobe.com

Sierra de Córdoba

Sierra de Córdoba

Sierra de Córdoba, facing east, overlooking an escarpment in the Pampa.

Chip and Rosa Maria Peterson

Tropical forests of the Americas

Tropical forests of the Americas

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Ecuador: rainforest

Ecuador: rainforest

Rainforest vegetation grows along the northern coast of Ecuador.

© Victor Englebert

caatinga vegetation

caatinga vegetation

Caatinga vegetation in the dry interior of northeastern Brazil.

©Luiz Claudio Marigo/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Tall Araucaria pine trees, also known as Parana pine trees, stand with sparse, umbrella-like canopies above a dirt road and surrounding vegetation under a clear sky.

Paraná pine

Paraná pine (Araucaria angustifolia) of South America.

© Xico Putini/stock.adobe.com

Sparse tufts of yellow grass cover the dry, flat Altiplano Plateau in Bolivia, with snow-capped mountains rising in the background.

Altiplano vegetation

Scrub vegetation on the Altiplano, Bolivia.

© 7382489561/Shutterstock.com

A person holds a piranha from the Napo River in Ecuador, showing its sharp, triangular teeth and red-orange lower jaw as they remove a fishing hook from its mouth.

Piranha from the Napo River in Ecuador

© alblec—iStock/Getty Images

A toucan (Ramphastos toco) with a large, colorful beak and bright yellow throat perches among green leaves in a Colombian rainforest.

toucan

Toucan in the Colombian rainforest of northern South America.

© Jessica Blanc/stock.adobe.com

vicuña

vicuña

Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna).

Alexandre Buisse

Two guanacos stand on grassy plains near a blue river, with snow-capped mountains of the Andes in the background in Patagonia, southern Argentina.

guanaco

Guanacos (Lama guanicoe) in Patagonia, southern Argentina.

© Kushnirov Avraham/stock.adobe.com

Southern green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)

Southern green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)

© Jess Kraft— 500Px Plus/Getty Images

Amazonian leaf-footed bug

Amazonian leaf-footed bug

Amazonian leaf-footed bug (Diactor bilineatus).

E.S. Ross

A large pirarucu fish (Arapaima gigas) with dark scales and reddish tail swims in an aquarium, with tree-like structures and aquatic plants in the background.

Pirarucu (Arapaima gigas)

© N-sky/Shutterstock.com

Poison frog

Poison frog

Poison frog, native of the Amazon rainforest of South America.

© kikkerdirk/stock.adobe.com

Variegated spider monkey

Variegated spider monkey

Variegated spider monkey, Venezuela, northern South America.

© Wilfredo Rodríguez (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

A bright green emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus) coiled around a branch in a dense Amazon rainforest, with large tree roots visible in the background.

Emerald tree boa

An emerald tree boa, native to the Amazon rainforest of South America.

© Sean/stock.adobe.com

Illustration of a South American lungfish (Lepidosiren paradoxa) showing its long, slender, eel-like body with small fins, alongside a scale bar indicating a length of 30 centimeters or 12 inches.

South American lungfish

South American lungfish (Lepidosiren paradoxa).

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Two guanacos with tan and white fur stand on a grassy hill with mountains in the background in Patagonia, Chile.

guanaco

Guanacos, Patagonia, Chile, southern South America.

© Anton_Ivanov/Shutterstock.com

Adult and juvenile Andean condors soar with wings spread against a clear blue sky over Colca Canyon near Arequipa, Peru.

Andean condor

Andean condors (Vultur gryphus).

© Ignatius Tan—Moment/Getty Images

Iguaçu Falls

Iguaçu Falls

Iguaçu Falls, at the Argentina–Brazil border.

© Digital Vision/Getty Images

Nazca water jar

Nazca water jar

Nazca painted-clay double-spouted water jar, 4th-5th century ce.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Purchase, Arthur M. Bullowa Bequest, 1996 (1996.174), www.metmuseum.org.

Guanacos

Guanacos

Herd of guanacos in eastern Patagonia, Valdés Peninsula, Argentina.

© Victor Englebert

Map of South America and the Caribbean showing the distribution of Aboriginal cultural groups, with regions color-coded by cultural type including Andean, Central American, tropical forest, and various nomadic cultures such as aquatic nomads, forest hunters and gatherers, and shellfish gatherers. Major group names are labeled across the continent and surrounding islands.

distribution of aboriginal South American and circum-Caribbean cultural groups

Distribution of aboriginal South American and circum-Caribbean cultural groups.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

An Ecuadorian shaman wearing a feathered headdress performs an ayahuasca ceremony with ritual objects, candles, and bottles on a wooden table in a thatched hut.

Ayahuasca; shaman

A shaman performing an ayahuasca rite in the Amazon region of Ecuador.

© Ammit Jack/Shutterstock.com

Lima, Peru: cathedral

Lima, Peru: cathedral

Cathedral of Lima, Peru.

© Ron Gatepain (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

population density of South America

population density of South America

Population density of South America.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Dense cluster of high-rise apartment and office buildings fills the skyline of Sao Paulo, Brazil, with distant mountains in the background.

São Paulo, Brazil

The densely populated city of São Paulo, Brazil.

© David Davis/Shutterstock.com

Panoramic view of La Paz, Bolivia, showing a dense cluster of tall buildings and skyscrapers set against a backdrop of rocky hills.

La Paz

Panoramic view of La Paz, Bolivia.

Jeremy Woodhouse—Digital Vision/Getty Images

Iron mine, Pará state, Brazil

Iron mine, Pará state, Brazil

Large iron mine in the Serra dos Carajás, Pará state, Brazil.

© Tony Morrison/South American Pictures

stock raising on the Llanos in Colombia

stock raising on the Llanos in Colombia

Horses being watered on the Llanos in eastern Colombia.

© Victor Englebert

View of green hills densely planted with rows of coffee plants near Manizales, Colombia, with scattered trees among the crops.

Colombia: coffee plantation

Coffee plantation near Armenia, Colombia.

© Jesse Kraft/Dreamstime.com

Tall babassu palm tree with a slender trunk and large, feathery fronds, standing among other palms under a partly cloudy sky in Piaui, Brazil.

Babassu palm

A tall babassu palm (Attalea speciosa) in Piauí, Brazil.

© Pedro Helder/Dreamstime.com

Handwoven Bolivian textiles with colorful geometric patterns are neatly arranged for sale on the ground at a market in Tarabuco.

Textiles in a market, Tarabuco, Bolivia

© Shargaljut/Dreamstime.com

Itaipú Dam

Itaipú Dam

Itaipú Dam on the Upper Paraná River, north of Ciudad del Este, Paraguay.

Vieira de Queiroz—TYBA/Agencia Fotografica

Alto Paraná River

Alto Paraná River

Bridge over the Alto Paraná River between Ciudad del Este, Paraguay, and Foz do Iguaçu,...

© Tony Morrison/South American Pictures

A series of four world maps showing the progression of continental drift over time. The maps illustrate the supercontinent Pangaea 225 million years ago, its breakup into Laurasia and Gondwana 150 million years ago, the further separation of continents 100 million years ago, and the current arrangement of continents on Earth today. Continents are labeled in each map.

Continental drift

The location of Earth's continents at various times between 225 million years ago...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Smoke over South America on March 27, 1998.In South America fires burned out of control in the state of Roraima, Brazil, as well as in Colombia and Venezuela.

Smoke over South America on March 27, 1998.In...

Goddard Space Flight Center/NASA

World map displaying global seismic centers for earthquakes of magnitude 5.5 and greater from 1975 to 1999. Colored circles mark earthquake locations, with size indicating magnitude and color representing depth of focus, showing dense concentrations along the Pacific Ring of Fire, Mediterranean-Asian seismic belt, and mid-ocean ridges.

earthquake epicentres

Global seismic centres for earthquakes of magnitude 5.5 and greater occurring between...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map showing migration routes of Native Americans from northeastern Asia across the Bering land bridge into North America and then southward through the Americas. Purple shading marks areas covered by glacial ice during the Pleistocene, and red dots indicate late Pleistocene Paleoindian archaeological sites in Siberia, Alaska, the United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America.

Migration routes of Native Americans.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map showing the spread of major plague outbreaks from 1885 to the present, with arrows tracing the sea routes of the third plague pandemic from Asia to ports in Africa, Australia, North America, South America, and Europe. Key cities and years of significant outbreaks are labeled, and shaded areas indicate regions where plague persists in wild rodent populations today.

locations of plague outbreaks in the 1800s and early 1900s

A map showing the locations of plague outbreaks in the 1800s and early 1900s.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of the Americas in 1780 showing the Spanish and Portuguese viceroyalties. Spanish territories are shaded in green, including the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroyalty of Peru, Viceroyalty of New Granada, and Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Portuguese territory, labeled as the Viceroyalty of Brazil, is shaded in purple. Borders between Spanish and Portuguese lands are marked, with amendments from 1750 and 1778 indicated. British territory is shown in the northern part of North America. Ma

Spanish viceroyalties and Portuguese territories in the Americas, 1780

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Historical map showing the division of Gran Colombia in 1830, with the territory divided into three color-coded departments: Cundinamarca in yellow, Quito in pink, and Venezuela in green. Dashed lines indicate disputed areas, and major cities such as Bogota, Quito, and Caracas are labeled. The map covers the region of northern South America, including present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and parts of Peru.

The division of Gran Colombia (1830)

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map of northern and central South America highlighting the Andes Mountains along the continent's western edge and the Amazon River basin and drainage network spanning Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and surrounding countries. The map uses color shading to show elevation, marks major rivers, cities, international and political boundaries, and features a small locator map of South America in the corner.

Central and Northern Andes and the Amazon River basin and drainage network

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map highlighting the Rio de la Plata river system and its drainage network across parts of Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia. The map uses color shading to show elevation, labels major rivers, swamps, and marshes, and marks international and political boundaries, cities, dams, waterfalls, bridges, and salt flats. The Gran Chaco region is labeled, and an inset locator map shows the region's position in South America.

Río de la Plata system and its drainage network

The Río de la Plata system and its drainage network and the Gran Chaco.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map of the northern Andes and the Orinoco River basin, covering parts of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and northern Brazil. The map uses color shading to indicate elevation, highlights major mountain ranges, rivers, and drainage networks, and marks international and political boundaries as well as key cities. An inset locator map shows the region's position in northern South America.

Northern Andes and the Orinoco River basin

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map of the Southern and Central Andes and Patagonia, highlighting elevation with color gradients from lowlands to high mountain peaks. The Andes mountain range runs along the western edge of South America through Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and parts of Peru, with major peaks and volcanoes labeled. Key cities, rivers, lakes, and international boundaries are marked, and a locator map in the corner shows the region's position in South America.

Southern and Central Andes and Patagonia

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map of eastern Brazil highlighting the Sao Francisco River and its extensive drainage network, with major tributaries, reservoirs, dams, and waterfalls marked. The map uses color shading to indicate elevation and shows political boundaries, major cities, and geographic features such as uplands and mountain ranges. An inset locator map of South America identifies the region within Brazil.

São Francisco River

The São Francisco River and its drainage network.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

An antique black-and-white map of South America from the Encyclopaedia Britannica First Edition, showing regions labeled as New Spain, Terra Firma, Amazons, Brazil, Paraguay, Terra Magellanica, Chile, Peru, and Tierra del Fuego, with surrounding oceans and a decorative compass rose.

South America, 18th-century map

Map of South America and the surrounding Southern Ocean (Atlantic) and Great South...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map using a gradient from dark brown to light beige to show the distribution of skin color variations among indigenous populations prior to European colonization. Darker tones are concentrated near the equator, especially in Africa, southern Asia, northern Australia, and parts of the Americas, while lighter tones appear in northern and higher latitude regions.

map

The global distribution of human skin colour is a well-defined example of genetic...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Soils of South America, distribution of soil groups as classified by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Click on legend entries to view article on each soil type.

Soils of South America, distribution of soil groups as classified by the Food and...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of North and South America highlighting regions where passerine (songbird) species have small geographic ranges. Colored zones indicate the number of such species per area: blue for 1, green for 2 to 5, yellow for 6 to 10, red for 11 to 15, and black for 16 to 500. Concentrated areas appear in parts of Central America, the Caribbean, the Andes, and select coastal and mountainous regions.

American songbirds

Distribution of songbirds in North and South America.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map displaying all continents labeled in bold text-North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and Oceania, and Antarctica-along with major oceans and several seas, such as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Oceans, and the Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Caspian Seas. Latitude lines including the Equator, Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and the Antarctic Circle are also marked.

World map

Map identifying the world's continents.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Concise Map of South America

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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