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How did Islamic law and the sultan’s civil laws work together in the Ottoman Empire?

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This map shows the territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire from 1300 to its greatest extent in 1683-99, highlighting different periods under rulers such as Mehmed II, Selim I, and Süleyman the Magnificent, and marking key cities, seas, and geographical boundaries in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. — Ottoman Empire Map showing the expansion of the Ottoman Empire from about 1300 to 1700. The empire reached its greatest extent between 1683 and 1699.

In the Ottoman Empire, the legal system functioned through a dual structure that balanced the Sharīʿah (Islamic religious law) with kanun (secular administrative or civil law).1

The Sharīʿah served as the foundational law, providing a divinely inspired framework for personal behavior and status. However, because it was not developed in detail regarding public administration and state organization, the sultan exercised his authority to issue kanun—regulations designed to address the practical exigencies of time and place.12

In theory, these civil laws were required to harmonize with the Sharīʿah. The ulama—the religious scholars who interpreted and enforced the Sharīʿah—held the formal right to invalidate any secular regulation that contradicted Islamic law. In practice, however, the ulama were organized into a hierarchy under the sultan’s authority, which meant they rarely challenged his decrees. This arrangement granted the sultan significant legislative freedom, allowing the empire to adapt to changing needs while maintaining its Islamic character.21