Byzantine Empire

Introduction & Top Questions
The empire to 867
- The Roman and Christian background
  - Unity and diversity in the late Roman Empire
  - The reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
- The 5th century: Persistence of Greco-Roman civilization in the East
  - Economic and social policies
  - Relations with the barbarians
  - Christological controversies
  - The empire at the end of the 5th century
- The 6th century: from East Rome to Byzantium
  - The years of achievement to 540
  - The crisis of mid-century
  - The last years of Justinian I
  - Christian culture of the Byzantine Empire
  - The successors of Justinian: 565–610
- The 7th century: the Heraclians and the challenge of Islam
  - Heraclius and the origin of the themes
  - The successors of Heraclius: Islam and the Bulgars
- The age of Iconoclasm: 717–867
  - The reigns of Leo III (the Isaurian) and Constantine V
  - Constantine’s weak successors
  - The Iconoclastic controversy
From 867 to the Ottoman conquest
- The Macedonian era: 867–1025
  - Military revival
  - Relations with the Slavs and Bulgars
    - Bulgarian wars
    - Relations with Russia
    - Bulgar revolt
  - Estrangement from the West
  - Culture and administration
  - Social and economic change
- Byzantine decline and subjection to Western influences: 1025–1260
  - 11th-century weakness
  - Arrival of new enemies
  - Alexius I and the First Crusade
  - Later Comneni
  - The Fourth Crusade and the establishment of the Latin Empire
- The empire under the Palaeologi: 1261–1453
  - Michael VIII
  - Andronicus II
  - Cultural revival
  - Andronicus III and John Cantacuzenus
  - Turkish expansion
  - Manuel II and respite from the Turks
  - Final Turkish assault
Byzantine emperors

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images

Hagia Sophia: mosaic

Map showing the changing boundaries of the Byzantine Empire around the eastern Mediterranean. Three areas are marked: the largest outline shows the empire's greatest extent under Justinian I (527-565), a medium pink area shows the empire in about 1020, and a smaller red area shows the empire in about 1360. Key regions include Asia Minor, Greece, the Balkans, and parts of Italy, North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean coast, with Constantinople marked as the capital.

Red porphyry statue group of four Roman emperors, known as the Tetrarchs, standing in pairs and embracing, set against a marble wall in Venice.

At a Glance

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Byzantine Empire summary

Byzantine Empire: Media

historical empire, Eurasia

Images

Hagia Sophia: mosaic

Hagia Sophia: mosaic

The Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child (centre), Justinian (left) holding a model...

© Joel Carillet—iStock/Getty Images

Map showing the changing boundaries of the Byzantine Empire around the eastern Mediterranean. Three areas are marked: the largest outline shows the empire's greatest extent under Justinian I (527-565), a medium pink area shows the empire in about 1020, and a smaller red area shows the empire in about 1360. Key regions include Asia Minor, Greece, the Balkans, and parts of Italy, North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean coast, with Constantinople marked as the capital.

Byzantine Empire

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Constantine I

Constantine I

Marble head of Constantine I, the only surviving piece of a giant statue that was...

© Photos.com/Getty Images

Red porphyry statue group of four Roman emperors, known as the Tetrarchs, standing in pairs and embracing, set against a marble wall in Venice.

statue of Diocletain's tetrarchy

Statue of Diocletain's tetrarchy, red porphyry, c. 300 ce,...

© V. Korostyshevskiy/stock.adobe.com

Diocletian

Diocletian

Diocletian.

Jebulon

Constantine II

Constantine II

Constantine II, silver miliarensis from Siscia, Pannonia, 337–340.

Yale University Art Gallery

Valentinian II

Valentinian II

Gold coin depicting Valentinian II (obverse side) and Valentinian II with Theodosius...

Yale University Art Gallery

Theodosius I

Theodosius I

Theodosius I, portrait on a gold coin from Mediolanum, Italy 378–383.

Yale University Art Gallery

Attila

Attila

Nineteenth-century painting of Attila, king of the Huns from 434 to 453.

Dagli Orti—REX/Shutterstock.com

Anastasius I

Anastasius I

Anastasius I, gold coin made in Constantinople, 491–518.

Yale University Art Gallery

Leo I

Leo I

Pope Leo I, also known as Leo the Great.

Spenser Arnold/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Mosaic portrait of Emperor Justinian I with a jeweled crown and halo, from the 6th-century Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy.

Justinian I

Justinian I, detail of a 6th-century mosaic at the Church of San Vitale, Ravenna,...

© A. De Gregorio—De Agostini/Getty Images

Sixth-century mosaic in San Vitale Basilica, Ravenna, showing Empress Theodora in elaborate jeweled attire and crown, flanked by two attendants in ornate robes.

Theodora

Empress Theodora, detail of a wall mosaic, 6th century; in the Church of San Vitale,...

© seraficus—iStock/Getty Images

Istanbul: Hagia Sophia

Istanbul: Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

© Digital Vision/Getty Images

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia

Night view of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

Geoff Tompkinson/GTImage.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Istanbul: Hagia Sophia

Istanbul: Hagia Sophia

Interior of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

Dennis Jarvis (CC-BY-2.0) (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Map of the Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian in AD 565, showing the empire's territory in orange across the eastern Mediterranean, including the Balkans, Anatolia, the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, Egypt, North Africa, Italy, and parts of southern Spain. The map distinguishes between lands held at the start of Justinian's reign and those reconquered during his rule, with surrounding kingdoms and geographic features labeled for context.

The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian I in 565 ce

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Heraclius

Heraclius

Heraclius, gold coin from Constantinople, 610–641.

Yale University Art Gallery

Justinian II

Justinian II

Justinian II, gold coin made in Byzantium, 705–711.

Yale University Art Gallery

transfiguration of Christ

transfiguration of Christ

Transfiguration of Christ, mosaic icon, early 13th century; in the Louvre, Paris.

Giraudon/Art Resource, New York

Leo III

Leo III

Leo III, gold solidus from Constantinople, 717–741.

Yale University Art Gallery

John I Tzimisces

John I Tzimisces

John I Tzimisces (left), effigy on a gold coin from Constantinople, 969–976.

Yale University Art Gallery

Map showing the Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent in 1025, shaded in purple, covering parts of southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, and the eastern Mediterranean, including regions such as Greece, the Balkans, western Anatolia, and the Aegean islands, with major cities and neighboring states labeled.

Byzantine Empire, 1025

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of Europe and the eastern Mediterranean showing the division between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity following the Schism of 1054. A red line marks the separation between Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) regions, with major centers of early Christianity, such as Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, indicated by black dots.

Schism of 1054

Map showing the effect of the East-West Schism of 1054.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

Alexius I Comnenus

Alexius I Comnenus

Alexius I Comnenus, detail of an illumination from a Greek manuscript; in the Vatican...

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana

Byzantine mosaic showing the Virgin Mary holding the Christ Child, flanked by Emperor John Comnenus II on the left and Empress Irene on the right, in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

Hagia Sophia: panel

Panel depicting the Virgin and Child with the emperor John II Comnenus and the empress...

© Tolga TEZCAN—E+/Getty Images

Manuel I Comnenus

Manuel I Comnenus

Manuel I Comnenus.

Gianni Dagli Orti/Shutterstock.com

Historical map showing the remnants of the Byzantine Empire in 1265, with territories color-coded: the Byzantine Empire in purple, the Despotate of Epirus in red, and the Empire of Trebizond in orange. The map covers southeastern Europe and western Asia, including regions around the Aegean, Black, and eastern Mediterranean Seas, and labels neighboring kingdoms and states.

Byzantine Empire, 1265

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Christ Pantocrator

Christ Pantocrator

Interior of the monastery church at Daphne, Greece, 11th century, crowned with a...

Rene Percheron-J.P. Ziolo

Historical map showing the Byzantine Empire in 1355 shaded in purple, with its territory centered around Constantinople, parts of southern Greece, and a small area near the Black Sea. The Empire of Trebizond is highlighted in orange along the southeastern Black Sea coast. Surrounding regions include the Ottoman Turks, Kingdom of Bulgaria, Kingdom of Serbia, Kingdom of Hungary, Lesser Armenia, the Mamluk Sultanate, and the Golden Horde, with major cities and geographic features labeled.

Byzantine Empire, 1355

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Manuel II Paleologus

Manuel II Paleologus

Manuel II Paleologus, detail from a Greek manuscript, 15th century; in the Bibliothèque...

Courtesy of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris

Istanbul: Blue Mosque

Istanbul: Blue Mosque

Interior of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul.

© estivillml—iStock Editorial/Getty Images

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