Australiaâs isolation as an island continent has done much to shapeâand inhibitâits culture. The Aboriginal peoples developed their accommodation with the environment over a period of at least 40,000 years, during which time they had little contact with the outside world. When Britain settled New South Wales as a penal colony in 1788, it did so partly because of the continentâs remoteness. Australiaâs convict heritage ensured that European perceptions of the environment were often influenced by the sense of exile and alienation. Yet, the distance from Britainâand the isolation it imposedâstrengthened rather than weakened ties with it. The ambivalence of the continuing colonial relationship, which only began to be dismantled in the second half of the 20th century, has been a central cultural preoccupation in Australia.
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Until World War II, Australian culture was almost exclusively Anglo-Celtic. The Aboriginal population was small and persecuted, and the Commonwealth governmentâs exclusivist White Australia policy helped to maintain the continentâs striking cultural homogeneity. However, in the second half of the 20th century, immigration rules were relaxed, and large influxes of both immigrants and refugees from eastern Asia, the Middle East, and various continental European countries made their way to Australia, each leaving an indelible imprint on the continentâs culture. Likewise, a revival of Aboriginal identity and positive measures from the government to redress past wrongs, along with a dramatic increase in the Aboriginal population, unleashed a renaissance in the Aboriginal arts.
Daily life and social customs
Australians are proud of their heritage and progressâproud of the fact that a nation of convicts and working-class folks could build a modern egalitarian society in a rough and inhospitable land. They typically disdain the pompous and ostentatious, and they are often characterized as informal and âlaid back,â an impression fostered by the typical and now internationally recognized greeting among âmatesâ and âsheilasâ: Gâday (Good day). Their tastes in popular fashions and entertainment differ little from those in Europe and North America, and their humour is often characterized as sarcastic, ironic, and self-deprecating.
Drinking and gambling have long been important aspects of Australian popular culture, despite persistent government attempts to regulate and limit them. Beer has traditionally been the drink of choice, but the explosion of Australian wine production has somewhat altered patterns. Since World War II, laws generally have been liberalized in favour of more âcivilizedâ drinking and greater access to gambling, often through government-owned agencies. However, whereas an older generation turned to the pub for socializing, many of the young are likely to seek out the disco or trendy bar or restaurant.
Australian cuisine is a product of international trends and the contributions of its Aboriginal and immigrant communities. Nevertheless, it has been heavily influenced by the countryâs Anglo-Celtic heritage, with the traditional British supper still common. Barbecues (âthe barbieâ) are a quintessential Australian pastime, and meat is ubiquitous. Traditional Aboriginal Outback cuisine consists of such unique foods as kangaroo, wombat, turtle, eel, emu, snake, and witchetty grubs (larvae of the ghost moth). Vegemite, a salty, dark-brown yeast extract, has long been a staple of the Australian diet.
Prior to the 1950s, very few European delicacies had been introduced to Australia, and it was difficult to obtain products such as olive oil and pasta. However, today, Italian food is a significant part of the national culinary culture, and pizza and pasta are among the most popular dishes in Australia. Immigrant traditions and customs also have had a major influence on Australian society and culture. In addition to cuisine, Chinese contributions include medicine and therapy (e.g., acupuncture and Shiatsu massage).
The calendar is well endowed with public holidays, making the long weekend an institution. ANZAC Day (April 25), marking the Australian and New Zealand landing at Gallipoli in 1915, is observed throughout Australia. Australia Day (January 26) celebrates the 1788 arrival of the British First Fleet at Sydney Cove and the proclaiming of Australia as a British possession. The British monarchâs birthday is also celebrated in June (October in Western Australia). In addition, the states have several regional holidays.
Australia hosts many festivals, which often attract a wide international audience. Particularly noteworthy arts events are the Sydney Festival (January), which features concerts and theatre and is accompanied by fireworks displays; the biennial Adelaide Festival of Arts (March); and the Melbourne Festival (October). Aboriginal arts festivals include the Barunga and Cultural Sports Festival (June) and Stompin Ground (October), held in Broome. Sydneyâs vibrant Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, held annually in February, attracts hundreds of thousands of revelers from around the world and is considered the worldâs largest celebration of its kind. Chinese cultural celebrations include Chinese New Year, the Dragon Boat Festival, and the Lantern Festival.
The arts
Literature
The original inhabitants of Australia used the oral tradition, including song and dance with gestural storytelling, to entertain, instruct, guide, and reveal spiritual truths, as well as physical geography and the location of life-sustaining resources. (See Australian literature.) This tradition, disrupted and more or less destroyed by the arrival of the British, was replaced by a literature that imitated European models. In the mid-19th century, the Australian landscape, flora, and fauna became the setting for many novels, and, soon after, the colonial experience became a popular subject. Although the bush, or Outback, loomed large in the national consciousness, Australia has been a characteristically urban society, even from its days as a penal colony. Writers as diverse as Robin Boyd, Donald Horne, and Hugh Stretton, as well as the satirist Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), drew attention to the significance of the suburban ethos in Australian culture. Patrick White, Australiaâs greatest novelist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1973, explored the negative potentialities of a country in the process of defining itself. Contemporary Australian writers such as Thomas Keneally, Thea Astley, David Malouf, Peter Carey, Hal Porter, Janette Turner Hospital, Elizabeth Jolley, and Tim Winton continue to draw an international following.
Performing arts
Dance
Perhaps best-known among Australiaâs dance troupes is the world-renowned national company, the Australian Ballet (founded 1962). Like the state-sponsored Queensland Ballet (1960) and West Australian Ballet (1953), it presents both classical and contemporary programs, though unlike them it tours internationally as well as regionally. Also noteworthy are Australian Dance Theatre (1965; contemporary dance), Dance North (1970), One Extra Dance Company (1976), Sydney Dance Company (1979), TasDance (1981), Legs on the Wall (1984), and Buzz Dance Theatre (1985). Bangarra Dance Theatre (1989), which blends the ancient traditions and spirit of the first Australians with the contemporary concerns of indigenous peoples, reached a large international audience when it performed in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games.
Music
Like the other arts in Australia, music there has two distinct traditions: those of the European colonists and those of the indigenous peoples, whose singing and ritual playing of the didjeridu (a drone instrument) reenact the ancient traditions related to a mythological time called the Dreaming, the Aboriginal conception of creation. Contemporary Aboriginal bands (such as Warumpi Band and Yothu Yindi in the early 21st century) incorporate elements of ancestral rituals. The European-based musical tradition also maintains its vitality in the contemporary scene. Australian opera fans can point to talent ranging from the popular coloratura soprano Dame Nellie Melba to the Australian filmmaker Baz Luhrmannâs 21st-century production of Giacomo Pucciniâs La Bohème. Traditional symphony orchestras abound,
Australian musicians also have made important contributions to the development of rock music, which has been central to Australian popular culture since the late 1950s, when Americans Bill Haley and His Comets first brought rock and roll to Australia. In 1958 Johnny OâKeefe became the first Australian rock and roll singer to reach the national charts, with his hit âWild One.â The first Australian rockers to have an impact outside the country were the Easybeats, who formed at an immigrant hostel near Sydney and scored an international hit with âFriday on My Mindâ in 1966. Although the Easybeats would struggle to repeat that success, two of the bandâs members, George Young and Harry Vanda, would go on to be a prolific songwriting and producing team. Moreover, two of Youngâs brothers would later be key contributors to one of Australiaâs biggest musical exports, superstar heavy metal band AC/DC. Another set of Australian siblings, the Bee Gees (short for Brothers Gibb), found similar international success in the pop and disco realm.
AC/DC had emerged from Australiaâs vibrant pub rock scene. Live-music venues thrived throughout the country and produced a number of bands that enjoyed limited foreign success but had huge followings in Australia and other bands that were popular beyond the countryâs borders. Among the most notable were Daddy Cool (âEagle Rock,â 1971), the Masters Apprentices, hard-rocking Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, soft rockers Air Supply and the Little River Band, blues-based Chain, glam rockers Skyhooks, and Cold Chisel, which was fronted by raspy-voiced everyman Jimmy Barnes and whose 1973 anthem âKhe Sanhâ evocatively conveys the experience of Australian veterans of the Vietnam War. Female vocalists Helen Reddy, Olivia Newton-John, and, later, Kylie Minogue found success by taking their talents abroad.
Central to Australian rock and pop music in the 1970s and beyond was the television music program Countdown, hosted by Ian (âMollyâ) Meldrum. By the 1980s a bounty of Australian pop, rock, and alternative rock performers were enjoying worldwide success, including Men at Work (âDown Under,â 1981), Midnight Oil, Crowded House, Hunters and Collectors, the Divinyls, and INXS. Several punk-influenced alternative performersânotably Nick Cave, the Go-Betweens, the Saints, and the Triffidsâsought fame in exile, relocating to England, as the Easybeats and the folk-rock group the Seekers (âGeorgy Girl,â 1966) had done in the 1960s. The latter-day expatriates found limited commercial success, though they were criticsâ darlings and gained cult followings. Throughout the 1990s and on into the 21st century, the list of Australian rock and pop performers who made a significant impact on international audiences grew to include Hoodoo Gurus, Silverchair, Jet, the Sleepy Jackson, Powderfinger, Savage Garden, Wolfmother, the Living End, and Courtney Barnett.
Theatre
For indigenous Australians, the corroboree comes closest to a modern concept of theatre, but this participatory public performance of songs and dances represents much more than entertainment; it is a celebration of Aboriginal mythology and spirituality. Groups such as Bangarra Dance Theatre bring a modern sensibility to bear on the storytelling and ritual essential to Aboriginal culture. European-based contemporary Australian theatre is characterized by its emphasis on smaller, regional theatre groups. Australiaâs larger cities offer fringe theatre as well as mainstream and alternative performances. Most of these troupes are committed to presenting the work of Australian playwrights, including Alexander Buzo, Jack Davis, Tim Robertson, and David Williamson.