Africa

Introduction
Geologic history
- General considerations
- Rock types and structural evolution
  - The Precambrian
  - The Paleozoic Era
  - The Mesozoic Era
    - Marine formations
    - Continental formations
  - The Cenozoic Era
    - Marine formations
    - Continental formations
    - Tectonic movements
    - Formation of the Red Sea
    - Volcanism and rifting
    - Pleistocene and Holocene developments
Land
- Relief
- Drainage
  - Nile basin
  - Niger basin
  - Congo basin
  - Zambezi basin
  - Orange basin
  - Chad basin
- Soils
  - Soil types
    - Desert soils
    - Chestnut-brown soils
    - Chernozem-like and black soils
    - Red tropical soils and laterites
    - Mediterranean soils
  - Soil problems
- Climate
  - Factors influencing the African climate
  - Climatic regions
- Plant life
  - Ecological relationships
  - Vegetational zones
    - Lowland rainforest
    - Eastern African forest and bush
    - Mangrove swamp
    - Broad-leaved woodland and grassland
    - Thorn woodland, grassland, and semidesert vegetation
    - Afromontane vegetation
    - Desert vegetation
    - Karoo-Namib shrubland
    - Highveld grassland
    - Mediterranean vegetation
    - Cape shrub, bush, and thicket
    - Madagascar
    - Sudd
  - Long-term changes in vegetation
    - Geologic influences
    - Climatic influences
    - Human influences
    - Conserving the vegetation
- Animal life
  - Genera and distribution
    - Mammals
    - Birds
    - Reptiles and amphibians
    - Arthropods
    - Aquatic life
    - Origin and adaption of African fauna
  - The effects of humans
  - Ecology
    - Animal life of particular interest
    - Conservation
    - Animals affecting land usage
People
- Culture areas
  - Northern Africa
  - Western Africa
  - West-central Africa
  - Eastern Africa
  - Central and Southern Africa
  - Madagascar
- Cultural patterns
  - Languages
  - Religions
  - Domestic groupings
- Demographic patterns
  - Population distribution
  - Settlement patterns
  - Migrations
Economy
- Resources
  - Mineral resources
    - Metallic deposits
    - Nonmetallic deposits
  - Water resources
    - Surface water
    - Groundwater
    - Availability for human use
  - Biological resources
    - Botanical resources
    - Animal resources
- Agriculture
  - Principal crops
    - Cereals and grains
    - Legumes and fodder
    - Tubers and root crops
    - Fruits and vegetables
    - Beverage crops
    - Fibres
    - Other cash crops
  - Livestock and fishing
- Industry
- Power
- Trade
  - Internal trade
  - External trade
    - Exports
    - Imports
- Transportation
  - Animal transport
  - Motor transport
  - Rail transport
  - Air transport
  - Navigation
Colonization of Africa
African independence dates

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images, Videos & Interactives

A map of the continent of Africa, including its countries, boundaries, and capital cities. It also shows parts of Europe and Asia and surrounding bodies of water, including the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean.

Colonization of Africa: Maps, Timeline, Decolonization, & Independence

Landmarks in Africa

Ruwenzori Range

Patchwork of green and brown farmland in the Little Karoo valley, with rolling hills and distant mountains near Oudtshoorn, Western Cape province, South Africa.

Table Mountain rises behind the cityscape and harbor of Cape Town, South Africa, with docks, ships, and waterfront buildings in the foreground.

Snow-dusted Toubkal peak rises above rugged slopes in the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco under a clear sky, with a forested area at the base.

Jagged peaks of the Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria rise above misty valleys at sunrise, with layered ridges and a colorful sky in the background.

Where did human evolution begin?

At a Glance

default image

Africa: Media

continent

Videos

Where did human evolution begin?

Where did human evolution begin?

Learn about the Australopithecus genus.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

Learn how the Niger River irrigates savannas, provides hydroelectricity, and serves as a transportation artery

Learn how the Niger River irrigates savannas, provides hydroelectricity, and serves as a transportation artery

The Niger River in the western region of Africa is used for irrigation, power production,...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

See a flock of red-billed queleas flying in Etosha National Park, Namibia

See a flock of red-billed queleas flying in Etosha National Park, Namibia

A flock of red-billed queleas (Quelea quelea), Etosha National Park, Namibia.

Video: © EcoView/Fotolia

A collage featuring four colonial-era European figures in military and formal attire, a yellow map of Africa, and a vintage cartoon of imperialism in the background.

What Was the Scramble for Africa?

African colonization changed history—and the map.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Discuss different irrigation methods used in northern Africa such as shadoofs, water scoops, and modern pumps

Discuss different irrigation methods used in northern Africa such as shadoofs, water scoops, and modern pumps

In the dry regions of northern Africa many different methods are used to irrigate...

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

How brown hyenas survive in the Namib Desert

How brown hyenas survive in the Namib Desert

Overview of the brown hyena.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

Smiling white woman pointing up at a vintage map, superimposed with the text Africa and the Mercator map.

Is the World's Most Popular Map Wrong?

The Mercator map distorts the size of some countries and continents.

Video: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Journey of the Nile: The longest river in the world

Journey of the Nile: The longest river in the world

Overview of the Nile River, 2009.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Dmitry Pichugin/Dreamstime.com

History of Zanzibar's slave trade

History of Zanzibar's slave trade

An overview of the African slave trade, with a discussion of Zanzibar.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz

Learn how the world is divided into continents

Learn how the world is divided into continents

The distribution of the seven continents.

Video: Created and produced by QA International. © QA International, 2010. All rights reserved. www.qa-international.com

Images

A map of the continent of Africa, including its countries, boundaries, and capital cities. It also shows parts of Europe and Asia and surrounding bodies of water, including the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean.

Africa

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Ruwenzori Range

Ruwenzori Range

Rugged peaks of the Ruwenzori Range, east-central Africa.

© guenterguni—iStock/Getty Images

Patchwork of green and brown farmland in the Little Karoo valley, with rolling hills and distant mountains near Oudtshoorn, Western Cape province, South Africa.

Little Karoo

Little Karoo, near Oudtshoorn, Western Cape province, South Africa.

© Daleen Loest/Shutterstock.com

Table Mountain rises behind the cityscape and harbor of Cape Town, South Africa, with docks, ships, and waterfront buildings in the foreground.

Table Mountain, South Africa

Table Mountain overlooking Cape Town and Table Bay, Western Cape province, South...

© Glowimages/Getty Images

Snow-dusted Toubkal peak rises above rugged slopes in the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco under a clear sky, with a forested area at the base.

Atlas Mountains

Toubkal peak (top right) in the High Atlas Mountains, Morocco.

© Mathias Berlin/Shutterstock.com

Lake Turkana

Lake Turkana

A view of Lake Turkana in northern Kenya.

© Doron

Jagged peaks of the Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria rise above misty valleys at sunrise, with layered ridges and a colorful sky in the background.

Ahaggar, North Africa

© Hecke01/Dreamstime.com

Mount Kenya

Mount Kenya

Mount Kenya, central Kenya.

© Jiri Kasal/Fotolia

Map of Africa highlighting major physical features such as mountain ranges, plateaus, deserts, rivers, lakes, and basins. Key features include the Atlas Mountains in the northwest, the Sahara and Kalahari deserts, the Congo Basin, Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, the Ethiopian Highlands, and major rivers like the Nile, Niger, and Congo. Surrounding bodies of water and nearby islands are also labeled. A small locator map shows Africa's position relative to Europe and Asia.

Physical regions of Africa

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Mount Kilimanjaro

Mount Kilimanjaro

Summit of Kilimanjaro, northeastern Tanzania.

© Shawn McCullars

Snow-capped, rugged Atlas Mountains encircle a green valley with scattered trees, terraced fields, and a few small buildings in Morocco.

Morocco

The rugged Atlas Mountains surround a valley in Morocco.

© Victor Englebert/Science Source

Afromontane moorland

Afromontane moorland

A view of the Afromontane moorland of tussocky grasses, giant groundsel, and lobelias...

Caroline Weaver/Ardea London

Several hikers make their way across rocky terrain toward Margherita Glacier on Mount Stanley, with rugged peaks and clouds in the background in the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda.

Uganda: Margherita Peak

Margherita Peak in the Ruwenzori Mountains, Uganda

© martin/stock.adobe.com

Map showing the Atlas Mountains across Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia in North Africa, with color shading to indicate elevation changes. Major mountain ranges, cities, rivers, and physical features such as the High Atlas, Anti-Atlas, Saharan Atlas, and surrounding deserts are labeled. An inset locator map highlights the region's position in northern Africa.

Atlas Mountains

The Atlas Mountains.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Algeria:
geography

Algeria: geography

The Ahaggar Plateau rises from the barren landscape of the Sahara in southern Algeria.

Geoff Renner/Robert Harding Picture Library

Aerial view of Mount Nyiragongo volcano in Virunga National Park, showing a glowing lava lake with smoke rising from the crater, surrounded by rocky caldera walls.

Mount Nyiragongo

An aerial view of an active crater on Mount Nyiragongo in the Virunga Mountains,...

© Natalia Gosciniak—Moment/Getty Images

Physical map of East Africa showing elevation with color gradients, international boundaries, major cities, rivers, lakes, dams, waterfalls, spot elevations, and active volcanoes. The map covers countries including Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, and Angola, with a locator inset highlighting the region within the African continent.

East African mountains and lakes

Mountains and lakes of East Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Aerial view of Monkey Bay at Lake Malawi in East Africa, showing lush green islands and rocky outcrops surrounded by blue water.

Lake Nyasa

Lake Nyasa (also called Lake Malawi or Lago Niassa).

© Nektarstock/stock.adobe.com

Lake Kivu

Lake Kivu

Lake Kivu, one of the Great Lakes of East Africa, lies between Rwanda and the Democratic...

Kay Honkanen/Ostman Agency

A fisherman sits in a small wooden boat on Lake Victoria near Mwanza, Tanzania, with rocky shoreline in the foreground and a distant island visible across the water.

Lake Victoria

A fisherman in a boat on Lake Victoria near Mwanza, Tanzania.

© Dvrcan/Dreamstime.com

Map of the Nile River basin showing the river's full course from its sources in East Africa through Uganda, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. The map highlights physical features including elevation, irrigated areas, swamps, sand areas, intermittent streams, dams, waterfalls, rapids, and canals, as well as major lakes and cities along the drainage network.

Nile River basin and its drainage network

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

White Nile River

White Nile River

Village along the White Nile River in Al-Sudd region, South Sudan.

© Klaus D. Francke/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Map of West and Central Africa showing the drainage networks of the Niger and Senegal river basins and the Lake Chad basin. Major rivers, tributaries, dams, swamps, sand areas, cities, and national boundaries are marked, along with elevation shading. The map includes a small locator inset highlighting the region within the African continent.

The Niger and Sénégal river basins and the Lake Chad basin and their drainage networks

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map of the Congo River basin and its drainage network in Central Africa, showing rivers, major tributaries, elevation gradients, cities, international boundaries, and the approximate boundary of the Ituri Forest. Swamps and flood-prone areas are marked in blue, with symbols indicating waterfalls, rapids, and dams. An inset locator map shows the basin's position within Africa.

Congo River basin and drainage network

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of the Zambezi River basin in southern Africa, showing the river's course, major tributaries, dams, waterfalls, and rapids. The map highlights physical features such as elevation, major cities, and country boundaries, with a locator inset indicating the basin's position on the African continent. Areas subject to flooding and key bridges are also marked.

Zambezi River

The Zambezi River basin and its drainage network.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Physical map of southern Africa showing elevation with color shading, major rivers including the Orange River, national boundaries, cities, mountain ranges, deserts such as the Kalahari, and features like salt flats, swamps, and waterfalls. Surrounding countries include Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, South Africa, Lesotho, and Eswatini. An inset locator map highlights the region within the African continent.

Orange River basin and its drainage network

The Orange River basin and its drainage network, one of the prominent physical features...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

African soil groups

African soil groups

Distribution of African soil groups as classified by the Food and Agriculture Organization...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

camel caravan in the Sahara

camel caravan in the Sahara

Camel caravan in the Sahara, Morocco.

© Vladimir Wrangel/Shutterstock.com

Map of Africa displaying major climate regions with color coding: dark green for tropical rainforest, light green for humid subtropical, yellow for grasslands, orange for semiarid areas, red for deserts, and pink for highland climates. The Sahara Desert dominates the north, rainforests are concentrated in central Africa, grasslands and semiarid zones form transitional bands, and highland climates appear in eastern and southern regions.

Africa: major climate regions

Africa's climate is dominated by desert conditions along vast stretches of its northern...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

Map of Africa highlighting the distribution of tropical forests, with montane rainforests marked in blue-green, lowland rainforests in green, and dry or deciduous forests in yellow. The map also indicates the locations of national parks, World Heritage sites, and major cities, with dense forest regions concentrated in Central and West Africa, particularly around the Congo Basin.

African tropical forests

Tropical forests in Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Sweeping orange sand dunes and distinctive rock formations rise under a partly cloudy blue sky in the Sahara Desert, Algeria.

Sahara

A view of the Sahara in Algeria.

© Dmitry Pichugin/stock.adobe.com

Grassland

Grassland

Highveld grassland near Heidelberg, South Africa, southeast of Johannesburg.

Gerald Cubitt—Bruce Coleman Ltd.

Lake Kariba

Lake Kariba

A view of Lake Kariba, located between Zambia and Zimbabwe in Central Africa.

© Adam Ojdahl

Cape buffalo

Cape buffalo

Cape, or African, buffalo (Syncerus caffer).

Mark Boulton—The National Audubon Society Collection/Photo Researchers

A common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) sits on a rock holding a long blade of grass in its mouth, with dense green foliage in the background.

masked chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus)

The West African, or masked, chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) is a critically...

© David Havel/shutterstock.com

red-bellied lemur

red-bellied lemur

Red-bellied lemur (Eulemur rubriventer) in the eastern Madagascar rainforest...

© David Curl/Oxford Scientific Films Ltd.

A streaked tenrec (Hemicentetes semispinosus) with black and yellow spines stands on green moss against a dark background.

streaked tenrec

Streaked tenrec (Hemicentetes semispinosus).

© reptiles4all/Shutterstock.com

ostriches

ostriches

Ostriches (Struthio camelus); at left is the male.

David C. Houston—Bruce Coleman Ltd.

African lungfish

African lungfish

African lungfish (Protopterus annectens).

© Tom McHugh/Science Source

coelacanth

coelacanth

Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae)

Peter Green—Ardea Photographics

A female Red-billed Quelea with a pale head and a male with a bright red head and bill perch side by side on a bare branch.

red-billed quelea

Male (right) and female red-billed queleas (Quelea quelea).

© Johan Swanepoel/Shutterstock.com

Map showing the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park spanning the borders of Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. The core area of the park is outlined in red and includes Kruger National Park in South Africa, Limpopo National Park in Mozambique, and Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe. Additional national parks and monuments in the region are also marked, with a locator map of Africa in the bottom right corner for geographic context.

Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Virunga National Park

Virunga National Park

Tourists photograph a mountain gorilla at Virunga National Park in the Democratic...

Martin Harvey—Avalon.red/Alamy

Kenya: traditional clothing

Kenya: traditional clothing

Women in traditional clothing, Kenya, East Africa.

© Goodshoot/Getty Images

Tuareg man; camel

Tuareg man; camel

A Tuareg man and a camel in the Sahara, Algeria, North Africa.

© Claire.B/Fotolia

Ituri Forest: Efe camp

Ituri Forest: Efe camp

Efe camp in the Ituri Forest, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Efe are one of...

Robert C. Bailey

Maasai men

Maasai men

Maasai men in traditional attire, Kenya, East Africa.

© Herby ( Herbert ) Me/Fotolia

Botswana: San

Botswana: San

Two San men in Botswana demonstrating the traditional method of starting a fire.

Ian Sewell

Map of Africa showing the distribution of major language families, with regions color-coded for Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, Afro-Asiatic, Khoisan, Austronesian, and Indo-European languages. The map also labels major ethnic groups and peoples within each region, such as Arabs in North Africa, Fulani and Hausa in West Africa, and Zulu and Xhosa in southern Africa.

Africa: languages and peoples

Major languages and peoples of Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Dejenné, Mali: mosque

Dejenné, Mali: mosque

Mosque at Dejenné, Mali, designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1988.

© jean claude braun/Fotolia

Yoruba dance

Yoruba dance

Yoruba in Nigeria performing a dance in honour of the god Shango.

Frank Speed

Map of Africa showing population density by region, with darker orange and red areas indicating higher concentrations of people, especially along the Mediterranean coast, West Africa, the Nile River, and parts of East and Southern Africa. Major cities such as Cairo, Lagos, Nairobi, and Johannesburg are marked, highlighting urban population centers.

population density of Africa

Population density of Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Mauritania: hut

Mauritania: hut

Mud-and-thatch hut, Mauritania, West Africa.

© Kirsz Marcin/Shutterstock.com

Cape Town

Cape Town

An aerial view of Cape Town, South Africa.

© Digital Vision/Getty Images

Curved twin staircases lead to the upper level of a pinkish-red slave house on Goree Island, Senegal, with arched doorways and a sandy courtyard below.

Gorée Island, Senegal: Maison des Esclaves (“Slave House”)

Maison des Esclaves (“Slave House”), Gorée Island, Senegal.

© GoLo/stock.adobe.com

Rows of simple, flat-roofed buildings and shelters stretch across the sandy landscape of Boujdour Camp, Tindouf, Algeria, under a clear sky.

Boujdour Refugee Camp

View of the Boujdour camp, part of the Sahrawi refugee settlements, Tindouf, April...

© Noe Falk Nielsen—NurPhoto/Getty Images

evidence of continental drift

evidence of continental drift

Among the first clues scientists discovered that supported the notions of continental...

C. Amante and B.W. Eakins (NOAA/NESDIS/NGDC)

Map of Africa in 1960 showing the political status of each territory or country. Many countries gained independence that year, including Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Chad, and the Central African Republic. Countries already independent at that time included Ethiopia, Liberia, Ghana, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, and South Africa. More than 20 territories remained under colonial rule.

Africa: Political status in 1960

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

A series of four world maps showing the progression of continental drift over time. The maps illustrate the supercontinent Pangaea 225 million years ago, its breakup into Laurasia and Gondwana 150 million years ago, the further separation of continents 100 million years ago, and the current arrangement of continents on Earth today. Continents are labeled in each map.

Continental drift

The location of Earth's continents at various times between 225 million years ago...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Two side-by-side maps of Africa, southern Europe, and southern Asia. The left map shows regions where malaria is present, shaded in green, covering much of sub-Saharan Africa, parts of the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia. The right map displays the frequency of the sickle cell allele (HbS) with varying shades of pink and red, indicating higher frequencies in central and western Africa, and lower frequencies in surrounding regions. The maps highlight the correlation between malaria presenc

distribution of malaria and sickle cell anemia

The distribution of malaria and the distribution of sickle cell anemia overlap in...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map displaying key sites of hominid excavations, marked with colored dots to indicate discoveries of Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens sapiens, and other unclassified fossils. Excavation sites are concentrated in Africa, with additional locations in Europe, Asia, and Australia.

hominid fossil excavation sites

The earliest fossils of human ancestors have been found in Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of southern and central Africa showing the routes of David Livingstone's major expeditions between 1841 and 1873, with color-coded lines representing his early journeys, the crossing of the continent, the Zambezi expedition, and his quest for the Nile. Key locations, lakes, and dates of significant events are labeled along the routes.

Explorations of David Livingstone

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of western Africa in the late 19th century showing areas under French and British control in 1880, and illustrating the advance of French, British, and German colonial forces with dated arrows. French-controlled territory is shaded green and British-controlled territory is shaded purple, with major advances and key cities labeled. Boundaries between mandates established in 1919 are also marked, and an inset locates the region within Africa.

European penetration into western Africa in the late 19th century

Map showing European-controlled territories and advances in western Africa in the...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of the Sahara Desert region in northern Africa showing physical features such as mountain ranges, plateaus, major sand areas, and elevation with color shading. Country boundaries, major cities, and select spot elevations are labeled. An inset locator map highlights the Sahara's position within Africa and the Mediterranean region.

Physiography of the Sahara.

The Sahara.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Vertical map showing the Suez Canal in Egypt, running from Port Said on the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the city of Suez on the Gulf of Suez in the south. The map highlights the canal's navigation route, adjacent drainage canals, nearby lakes such as Lake Manzala, Lake Timsah, and the Great and Little Bitter Lakes, as well as surrounding cities, railroads, and salt marshes. An inset locator map shows the canal's position within northeastern Africa and the Middle East.

Suez Canal

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map displaying global seismic centers for earthquakes of magnitude 5.5 and greater from 1975 to 1999. Colored circles mark earthquake locations, with size indicating magnitude and color representing depth of focus, showing dense concentrations along the Pacific Ring of Fire, Mediterranean-Asian seismic belt, and mid-ocean ridges.

earthquake epicentres

Global seismic centres for earthquakes of magnitude 5.5 and greater occurring between...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Thematic map of sub-Saharan Africa showing major sites where hominid fossils have been found, including locations in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Chad, and South Africa. Different symbols indicate fossil discoveries of Australopithecus, Kenyanthropus, Ardipithecus, Orrorin, and Paranthropus. Major lakes and country borders are also marked for geographic context.

hominid fossil sites

A selection of locations in sub-Saharan Africa where hominid fossils have been found....

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

map of early human species

map of early human species

Map depicting Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis sites of Africa,...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of Africa, Europe, and Asia showing fossil sites of Homo heidelbergensis (marked with yellow triangles) and Homo sapiens, including Cro-Magnon (marked with green circles). The map highlights key archaeological locations across these continents, with an inset providing additional detail for fossil sites in Western Europe.

sites of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo sapiens remains

Sites of Homo heidelbergensis and Homo sapiens remains in Africa,...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map showing the spread of major plague outbreaks from 1885 to the present, with arrows tracing the sea routes of the third plague pandemic from Asia to ports in Africa, Australia, North America, South America, and Europe. Key cities and years of significant outbreaks are labeled, and shaded areas indicate regions where plague persists in wild rodent populations today.

locations of plague outbreaks in the 1800s and early 1900s

A map showing the locations of plague outbreaks in the 1800s and early 1900s.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Antique map showing the northwest region of Africa as published in the 1902 Encyclopaedia Britannica. The map details colonial territories and countries such as Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, the Sahara, Senegal, Portuguese Guinea, French Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Togo, and Nigeria, with borders, cities, rivers, and geographic features labeled in fine print.

Northwest Africa, c. 1902

Map of northwest Africa, from the 10th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica,...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Map of northern Africa highlighting the extent of the Sahara Desert in orange, covering parts of countries including Morocco, Western Sahara, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. Surrounding countries and major bodies of water such as the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean are also shown for geographic context.

Sahara

The Sahara is the world's largest desert; it extends across most of the northern...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map using a gradient from dark brown to light beige to show the distribution of skin color variations among indigenous populations prior to European colonization. Darker tones are concentrated near the equator, especially in Africa, southern Asia, northern Australia, and parts of the Americas, while lighter tones appear in northern and higher latitude regions.

map

The global distribution of human skin colour is a well-defined example of genetic...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Soils of Africa, distribution of soil groups as classified by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Click on legend entries to view article on each soil type.

Soils of Africa, distribution of soil groups as classified by the Food and Agriculture...

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

World map displaying all continents labeled in bold text-North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and Oceania, and Antarctica-along with major oceans and several seas, such as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Oceans, and the Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Caspian Seas. Latitude lines including the Equator, Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and the Antarctic Circle are also marked.

World map

Map identifying the world's continents.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Africa

Africa

Map of Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Interactives

Colonization of Africa: Maps, Timeline, Decolonization, & Independence

Colonization of Africa: Maps, Timeline, Decolonization, & Independence

Learn about the colonization of Africa, the process of decolonization that led to...

© Encyclopaedia Britannica

Landmarks in Africa

Landmarks in Africa

Click through the map to learn about important landmarks in Africa.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The colonization of Africa over time

The colonization of Africa over time

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Refugio Mariscal

African Independence Dates

African Independence Dates

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

European exploration of the African coast

European exploration of the African coast

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski

VIEW MORE in these related Britannica articles: