Sites for economic activity are selected after taking into account factors such as nearness to sources of supply and to markets, availability of labour, climate, taxes, and transportation. One criterion for selecting a factory site is to find a spot between the sources of raw materials and markets where the total of all transportation costs is minimized. Other concerns include the number of carrier firms serving a site, the rates they charge, and the quality of service that they offer.
Users of transportation have several yardsticks when measuring the quality of transportation service between two points. They are speed; accessibility, measured in lapsed time between the decision to use transport and obtaining access to it; reliability; frequency of the userâs trips; intervals between the carriersâ departures; minimized transfer or intermediate stopping points; and punctuality.
Carriers set their rates between two limits. The upper limit is the value of service to the user, meaning that, if the carrier knew the true value of the service to an individual shipper or passenger, that is the amount they would charge. They could not charge more than the value of service, because the customer would not use it. Carriers would like to analyze the needs of each potential user and place each in a group where the charges would equal the total value of the transportation service. Carriers cannot do this, but they do place users into groups. Airline passengers sitting in the same row on a single plane may each pay a different fare, depending on how far in advance they were willing to buy a ticket and what kind of restrictions on the use of the ticket they were willing to accept. Freight shipments also are divided into many classifications, and one factor influencing the freight rates is the value of the product, with higher-valued products paying more. Part of the rationale for this is that higher transportation costs have less impact on an expensive goodâs final selling price; hence they can stand to pay the higher rates. In a sense, they help subsidize the carriage of less valuable freight.
The lower limit of a transportation rate is the cost of serviceâthat is, the carrier should not charge less than the cost of service or it will lose money on the business. It is difficult, however, for many carriers to know or determine their costs. Railroads and pipelines have large overhead, or fixed, costs. These are costs to which the carrier is already committed without regard to the level of current business. The other form of cost is known as out-of-pocket, or variable, costs, that are related to current business. If a shipper wants to ship four railcars of freight, the railroadâs fixed costsâe.g., interest and taxes on its roadbedâcontinue without regard to whether the railroad decides to move the shipperâs four cars. If the railroad decides to move the cars, it incurs variable expenses, such as fuel for the engine and salary for the crew. The shipper may be willing to pay only a little more than the variable costs. The railroad will consider any payments received that are greater than its variable costs as a contribution to overhead.
Even the distinction between overhead and variable costs is subject to debate. With respect to the shipper with four freight cars, it might also make a difference whether the direction he wanted to send his freight was the same as most railroad traffic (a forward haul) or a flow in the reverse of the major haul (a backhaul). If the shipment is a backhaul, the railroad might have been planning to move empty cars anyway, and the variable costs of moving the shipperâs freight might be only the costs of moving loaded, rather than empty, cars.
Carriers are often uncertain how to determine the costs of individual hauls. An American railroad does not know how much of its overhead costs to allocate, for example, to a shipment of coal from Cheyenne, Wyo., to Duluth, Minn. Sometimes the concepts of âjoint productsâ and âby-productsâ are used. A joint product is essential to the long-term survival of the firm, while a by-product is nonessential. The carrier must have a strategy to keep the joint-product types of traffic and be certain that their rates on this traffic are compensatory.
Carriers also enjoy economies of scale, although this varies with mode of transportation. Railroads benefit the most; a stretch of track between two cities has the same fixed daily costs whether it handles 1 or 10,000 cars per day. Airliners have a break-even point, at a load of about 70 percent of capacity. Revenues from any passengers carried above this amount flow almost directly into the firmâs profits. A carrier enjoying economies of scale tries to increase volume by lowering rates to attract additional traffic. In transportation, the phrase âeconomic densityâ is used to describe benefits to carriers of having certain heavily used routes that are full, or dense, with traffic.
If the shipper plans to use a motor carrier rather than a railroad, the motor carrier is likely to ignore completely the costs to the public of building and maintaining the highway and concentrate solely on the costs of operating the truck. It may be that the motor carrier contributes taxes that help improve and maintain all highways, but that is not likely to affect day-to-day business decisions concerning whether to haul specific loads of freight for a customer.
A carrierâs âidealâ rate would maximize a figure that represents a volume of traffic expressed in units multiplied by a rate per unit that is higher than costs. To maximize that figure, either a large volume of traffic units or a wide gap between revenues and costs per unit is needed.
Associated with carrier costs are costs of congestion. Most people like to travel at certain hours or on certain days; the same holds for some types of freight. This phenomenon is known as peaking. Carrier costs increase during peak periods because they must provide extra equipment. Congestion itself adds to operating costs because vehicles may not be able to depart on time and must move slowly because of heavy traffic. Because of these added costs associated with congestion, many carriers charge more for operations during peak hours. The increased charges reflect two factors: the carrierâs higher costs and higher demand by passengers and shippers. Most users are willing to pay higher charges for service during peak periods even though they also incur additional costs in terms of waiting time.
Carriers charge lower rates for âoff-peakâ periods. This reflects their lower costs and is an effort to entice users away from the peak periods. Mass transit systems often charge lower fares from 9:00 am until 3:00 pm on weekdays, for example, encouraging shoppers to travel when a system is not filled with commuters. Carriers have âincentiveâ rates to encourage increased utilization of equipment, and they will charge less per unit of weight for larger shipments.
User charges are fees levied for using transportation facilities operated by government agencies. Aircraft pay landing fees to use airports, and vessels pay dockage and wharfage fees to use public port facilities or lockage fees to transit locks along a waterway. Motorists and trucks pay fees to use toll roads or toll bridges.
