Once the general specifications of a production system have been agreed upon, including precise definitions of needed resources and output expectations, three important decisions remain. First, industrial engineers, production managers, and other specialists must choose and design the technology to be used. Their decisions must include the choice of equipment and tooling, the layout of plant space and facilities, the selection of workers and work procedures, and many other aspects of process design. These choices must be handled carefully; mistakes at this early stage can result in a business losing its competitiveness or the ability to sustain a profitable position in the market.

Next, given a choice of technology, the capacity of the system must be determined. The capacity of the system is designed to be a function of the amount of available capital, the demand forecast for the output of the facility, and many other minor factors. Again, these decisions must be made wisely. Establishing too much capacity, too soon, can burden a company with excess costs and inefficient operations. Too little capacity can make it difficult and expensive to increase output later if the market develops rapidly; this can place a company at a significant cost disadvantage if other competitors, with larger facilities, produce a product at a lower cost or with more consistent quality.

Finally, given a basic commitment to capacity, decisions must be made on the adaptability of the production volume to meet the inevitable changes in market demand that the firm will experience. Capacity in most production systems is adjusted by hiring or firing workers, by scheduling overtime or cutting back on work hours, by adding or shutting down machines or whole departments or areas of the facility, or by changing the rate of production within reasonable limits. The effectiveness of any one of these adjustment mechanisms depends largely on the technological constraints of the process itself, the economics of the industry, and the nature of the competition. In some industries, adjustment of capacity is a very difficult task. Assembly lines with specialized equipment, for example, are most efficient when run at one speed and cannot be slowed down or run intermittently without severe economic losses. In such cases, careful attention to the fundamental design of the production system is a critical factor in the overall success of the business.

Two handbooks contain a wealth of general information on industrial production systems, methods, problems, and management techniques: Gordon B. Carson, Harold A. Bolz, and Hewitt H. Young (eds.), Production Handbook, 3rd ed. (1972); and H.B. Maynard (ed.), Industrial Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed. (1971). See also Franklin G. Moore and Thomas E. Hendrick, Production/Operations Management, 8th ed. (1980), a classic textbook covering a wide range of topics in nontechnical language; and Harwood F. Merrill (ed.), Classics in Management, rev. ed. (1970), an excellent collection of excerpts from the writings of several pioneers in industrial production, including Frederick W. Taylor, Henri Fayol, and Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth. Two general texts that cover many aspects of the general field treated in this article are Elwood S. Buffa, Modern Production/Operations Management, 7th ed. (1983); and Richard B. Chase and Nicholas Acquilano, Production and Operations Management: A Life Cycle Approach, 4th ed. (1985).

Various aspects of systems and control are dealt with in B.H. Amstead, Phillip F. Ostwald, and Myron L. Begeman, Manufacturing Processes: SI Version, 7th ed. (1979); Michael Peters and Terence Oliva, Operations and Production Management (1981); and James H. Greene, Production and Inventory Control, rev. ed. (1974), and Operations Management: Productivity and Profit (1984).

Early studies of the organization of human effort for production are treated in classics of the 18th and 19th centuries, including Academie des Sciences, Paris, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 45 vol. (1761–89); Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776, reissued 1981); and Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures, 4th ed. enlarged (1835, reprinted 1971).

Historical views of developments leading to modern mass production methods are J.K. Finch, Engineering and Western Civilization (1951), The Story of Engineering (1960); and Friedrich Klemm, A History of Western Technology (1959, reissued 1964; originally published in German, 1954). Technical descriptions of mass production techniques are given by E. Paul Degarmo, J. Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, 6th ed. (1984). The classical technical works on time and motion studies in manufacturing are Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (1911, reissued 1967); and Frank B. Gilbreth, Motion Study: A Method for Increasing the Efficiency of the Workman (1911, reprinted 1972). Ralph M. Barnes, Motion and Time Study, 7th ed. (1980), describes modern industrial engineering methods; Ernest J. McCormick, Human Factors in Engineering and Design, 5th ed. (1982), provides a broad study of the physiological aspects of engineering design. Trevor I. Williams, A Short History of Twentieth-Century Technology c. 1900–c. 1950 (1982), is a good overview; Otto Mayr and Robert C. Post (eds.), Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures: A Symposium (1981), is a treatment of mass production revolution; Daniel Nelson, Frederick W. Taylor and the Rise of Scientific Management (1980), is a study of the development of Taylor’s ideas; Ira C. Magaziner and Robert B. Reich, Minding America’s Business: The Decline and Rise of the American Economy (1982, reissued 1983), is an account of specific problems.

Books written about human and societal problems and adjustments to the industrial milieu include R. Burlingame, Backgrounds of Power: The Human Story of Mass Production (1949), a popular history and commentary; William A. Faunce, Problems of an Industrial Society, 2nd ed. (1981), on the sociological effects; and Harvey Swados, On the Line (1957, reissued 1978), about the problems of assembly line work. Others have focused on the problems of individuals and how they may be approached. Among these are William J. Dickson and F.J. Roethlisberger, Counseling in an Organization (1966); Robert N. Ford, Motivation Through the Work Itself (1969); Frederick Herzberg, Work and the Nature of Man (1966, reprinted 1973); and Charles R. Walker and Robert H. Guest, The Man on the Assembly Line (1952, reprinted 1979).