production chain

production chain, in economics, an analytical tool used to understand the nature of the production process (including production of both goods and services) and its transformations.

The production process is a sequence of productive activities leading to an end use—a chain of linked functions, in other words. Each stage adds value to the production sequence. Hence, production chains are often called “value-added” or “value” chains. The stages in the chain are connected through a set of transactions. The organizational and geographical structure of the transactions characterize the nature of production.

The concepts of the production chain and the production network are often used interchangeably. However, at least on the analytical level, it is possible to distinguish between production chain as a term characterizing a production process in general, involving various activities within the production system that may be performed by various organizations, and production network as a term characterizing a network of relationships within and between firms.

The structure of the production chain may vary between two extremes, which can be defined along two dimensions. The first refers to the degree of coordination or control (tight or loose), the second to the geographical location of functions (local or global). Thus, at one extreme, all operations of the chain may be concentrated in a single firm in one place. There, transactions are organized hierarchically through a firm’s organizational structure. At the other extreme, each function of the chain may be performed by independent geographically dispersed firms. In that case the transactions are organized through the market.

During the second half of the 20th century, technological change and the liberalization of trade radically reorganized the production process so that specialization in each segment became possible, and the production chain, historically concentrated in one country, could be parceled out and distributed around the globe. That led to increases in trade relative to domestic production and the rise of the proportion of imported inputs in the production processes. Thus, national economies became more dependent on trade for domestic production. For instance, the United States was transformed from a virtually self-sufficient economy to an import-dependent one.

The increasing ability to “slice up” the production chain increased trade between industrialized and developing countries, reinforcing the shift toward a new international division of labour. Whereas advanced industrial processes in the past tended to be concentrated in developed economies, companies came to locate segments of the production process in lower-wage countries or subcontract to local companies in Asia or Latin America.

Peter Dicken, Global Shift, 5th ed. (2007); Gary Gereffi and Miguel Korzeniewicz (eds.), Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism (1994).