price system, a means of organizing economic activity. It does this primarily by coordinating the decisions of consumers, producers, and owners of productive resources. Millions of economic agents who have no direct communication with each other are led by the price system to supply each otherâs wants. In a modern economy the price system enables a consumer to buy a product he has never previously purchased, produced by a firm of whose existence he is unaware, which is operating with funds partially obtained from his own savings.
Prices are an expression of the consensus on the values of different things, and every society that permits exchanges between people has prices. Because prices are expressed in terms of a widely acceptable commodity, they permit a ready comparison of the comparative values of various commoditiesâif shoes are $15 per pair and bread 30 cents per loaf, a pair of shoes is worth 50 loaves of bread. The price of anything is its value in exchange for a commodity of wide acceptability: the price of an automobile may be some 50 ounces of gold or 25 pieces of paper currency. (See also money.)
A system of prices exists because individual prices are related to each other. If, for example, copper rods cost 40 cents a pound and the process of drawing a rod into wire costs 25 cents a pound, then it will be profitable to produce wire from a copper rod if its price exceeds 65 cents. Conversely, it will be unprofitable to produce wire if its price falls below 65 cents. Competition will hold the price of wire about 25 cents per pound above that of rods. A variety of such economic forces tie the entire structure of prices together.
The system of prices can be arranged to reward or penalize any kind of activity. Society discourages the production of electric shoestring-tying machines by the simple expedient of making such a machineâs attainable selling price less than the prices of the resources necessary to produce it. Society stimulates people of great athletic promise to learn golf (rather than polo or cricket) by awarding significant prizes (= prices) to tournament winners. The air in many cities is dirty because no one is charged a price for polluting it and no one can pay a price for having it cleaned.
The basic functions of economic systems
Every economic system provides solutions to four questions: what goods and services will be produced; how they will be produced; for whom they will be produced; and how they will be allocated between consumption (for present use) and investment (for future use). In a decentralized (usually private enterprise) economic system, these questions are resolved, and economic coordination is achieved, through the price mechanism.
Even the simpler economy of a traditional society must choose between food and shelter, weapons and tools, or priests and hunters. In a modern economy the potential variety of goods and services that may be produced is immense. Consider, for example, the thousands of new book titles that are published each yearâor the hundreds of colours of paint or the thousands of styles of clothing that are brought to the market annually. Each of these actual collections is much smaller than the amount that could be produced.
A price system weighs the desires of consumers in terms of the prices they are willing to pay for various quantities of each commodity or service. The payment for the services of a skilled surgeon (a price much influenced by the number of surgeons) reflects the unique nature of those skills for the buyer-patient, whereas the price of an electric popcorn popper reflects the minor convenience it provides. Of course, the amount consumers agree to pay will be influenced by their wealth as well as their desires, but for any single consumer, relative desire is proportional to the price offered.
Figure 1: WHEN SUPPLY MEETS DEMAND. Economic theory teaches that supply and demand are in balance at the equilibrium price (the black dot) in the classic supply and demand graph. In reality, that dot is always moving in a process called price discovery.
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Universal laws are not common in social life. Economists nonetheless place immense confidence in the proposition that the consumer will buy less of any commodity when its price rises. This law of demand is by no means a necessary fact of life; rather it is an empirical rule to which there are no known, reliable exceptions. Bread, caviar, education, narcoticsâinterested buyers will purchase more of each when its price falls. These demand prices are the guides that in effect tell producers which items to produce and in what quantities. (See supply and demand.)
The second question an economy must answer involves deciding how the desired goods are to be produced. There is more than one way to grow wheat, train lawyers, refine petroleum, and transport baggage. The efficient production of goods and services requires that certain fundamental rules be followed: no resource should be used in producing one thing when it could be producing something more valuable elsewhere, and each product should be made with the smallest-possible amount of resources.
A functioning price system induces all participants in the economy to steer their resources toward activities that yield a reward. Jobs that pay a high price for labour will attract workers seeking the reward of a high salary. Crops that yield a greater profit will attract more farmers to cultivate them. Similarly, capital will be drawn from a faltering trade and redirected to an industry where it can earn higher returns.
This same price system seeks to achieve production efficiency through competition. If one firm, for instance, can design, produce, and distribute shoes while using fewer resources than its rivals, it will make larger profits; it is therefore motivated to discover more efficient combinations of inputs and plant locations, to devise wage systems to stimulate its workers, to use computers to manage inventories and streamline shipping, and so forth.
