In Britain the broadening of unionismâs membership base was underpinned by the spread of employer recognition and voluntary collective bargaining procedures, and it was the union leadersâ faith in this process that encouraged them to believe that they could dispense with political and legal support. The engineersâ defeat in 1898 did not lead to a withdrawal of employer recognition, and by this stage collective bargaining had spread beyond the crafts into coal mining and cotton manufacturing. However, unlike the craft, coal, and cotton unions, those of more recent origin still faced an uphill struggle. In the maritime, railway, and gas industries recognition was commonly denied, but the willingness of the new unions to recruit across occupational boundaries contributed to their survival. During the years after 1910 it was the unions constituted on a general or multioccupational basis that grew most rapidly. Of the three largest unions of the second half of the 20th century, twoâthe Transport and General Workers Union and the General and Municipal Workers Unionâwere direct descendants of new unions of 1889.
Though union membership growth was a marked feature of the early 20th century in Britain, as in Australasia, its upward course was less steady and more vulnerable to shifts in the economic cycle. In the full-employment years of 1910â20 it was explosive, accompanied by an escalation of industrial militancy in mining, railways, docks, and elsewhere. As in the former colonies, such militancy was tinged with syndicalism. But growth was halted abruptly in 1920, with membership at 45 percent of the work force, and in conditions of heavy unemployment there followed a long decline into the early 1930s. Though unemployment checked growth in the other countries as well, the contraction in British union coverage, to 22.6 percent, was particularly severe. Despite the shrinking membership, industrial conflict took time to abate, as employersâ efforts to force down wages were met with determined resistance. In 1921, with the creation of a General Council, the TUC had equipped itself to coordinate industrial action, and this power was put to the test in 1926 when a general strike was called in support of the Miners Federation. Conflict on this scale inevitably pitted unions against state, and it was this wider aspect of the dispute that in the end caused the TUC, committed as it was to constitutional modes of action, to call the strike off. Government, for its part, having established what it regarded as the boundaries of legitimate action and having confirmed them in legislation in 1927, was not inclined to intervene further to restrict union activity. Nor did employers move to de-recognize unions.
Trade unionism after World War II: An erosion of strength
In conditions of full employment and inflation following World War II, the respective industrial relations systems of both Britain and Australasia came under strain. In the case of compulsory arbitration, unions that had once clung to the system when they were weak now chafed at its restrictions when their strength was recovered. At an early stage there were confrontations involving traditionally militant mining and wharf unions. With the Cold War then at its height, Communist influence within such unions called forth drastic countermeasures by governments, and the 1949 coal strike and 1951 wharf strike, in Australia and New Zealand, respectively, were decisively defeated. As in the past, however, the majority of unions were not drawn into open opposition to arbitration. Nonetheless, though the âadventuristâ phase of Communist-inspired militancy was over, more general tendencies toward direct bargaining and strike activity persisted in both countries. Established as an alternative to industrial conflict, compulsory arbitration always faced in practice the problem of how to deal with strikes. A crisis was reached in Australia in the 1960s, when unions were fined for strikes with increasing frequency. The imprisonment of a union official in 1969, in an attempt to recover payment, led to a wave of protest and to the tacit abandonment of penal sanctions. The episode was revealing. It was the systemâs flexibility, its capacity to adapt to variations in the balance of industrial power over time and between different industries, that had contained the unions within it. Indeed, flexibility (and complexity) became such marked characteristics of the system that doubt grew as to its continued usefulness. In the 1980s the Australian government commissioned a complete review, yet the Hancock Report that emerged recommended no fundamental modification. Compulsory arbitration had been woven deeply into the fabric of national life in both countries, and in the process unions had been integrated more completely than in other democracies.
In postwar Britain, enhanced union power was widely blamed for inflation and for overmanning and disruption in industry. Between 1945 and 1951, when the Labour Party was in government and the wartime ban on strikes continued, integration between state and unions was unusually close. Government acted to break a series of dock strikes, without general union opposition, in a situation that closely paralleled that in Australasia. Through the 1950s and â60s, however, unions and government drifted into opposition. The wartime experiment in compulsory arbitration had struck no deep roots and was abandoned, while the return to purely voluntary bargaining was increasingly perceived as damaging in its economic consequences. Under full employment, shop steward organization spread rapidly through industry and was associated with a growing tendency toward unofficial, or âwildcat,â strike activity. The voluntary institutions of British industrial relations appeared to be breaking down, and they were subjected to searching review by a Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employersâ Associations appointed in 1965. The largely voluntary remedies proposed by the commission did not satisfy governments, which were intent on urgent action. In 1969 a Labour government proposed legal restraints on unofficial strikers, enforceable by finesâa development even less welcome to British unions than to those in Australia. The proposals were withdrawn, but the successor Conservative government introduced a new legal code in the Industrial Relations Act of 1971, which included laws on unfair industrial practices and on legally binding agreements. These and various other provisions were to be enforced by a special Industrial Relations Courtâin effect reversing the entire British tradition of legal abstention. Even then, unions refused to be contained within the tight legal framework that had been created, and this government was besieged by a renewed industrial militancy that not only rendered its legislation inoperable but also brought it to electoral defeat on the issue of the enforcement of statutory controls on wage bargaining.
Mine workers clashing with police in Sheffield, England, during a strike, April 1984.
John RogersâDaily Express/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
In all three countries, profound shifts in the structure of the employed population during the later 20th century eroded the traditional membership base of unions. In following these shifts toward white-collar, female, and service-sector employment, unions endeavoured to match strides with the rapidly changing composition of the work forceâjust as, earlier in the century, they had broken through the divide separating skilled from unskilled manual labour. However, though their composition was modified profoundly, with greatly increased representation of white-collar and female employees, they could not keep pace. Union coverage of the work force in Britain recovered to its 1920 level in 1948, then surged forward in the 1970s to pass 50 percent for the first time. From a peak in 1979, however, it fell away. Closer integration with the state may have afforded Australasian unions better protection against the adverse consequences of structural change, but this is uncertain. Australian union coverage peaked at 60 percent in 1954; subsequent decline was checked in the early 1970s, but by the late 1980s coverage may have been as low as 42 percent. Higher levels of unemployment from the 1970s reinforced the trend, associated as they were with a rapid contraction of employment in union strongholds in manufacturing, mining, and the docks. In Britain this contraction was accelerated by a series of union defeats, the most drastic of which was inflicted upon the National Union of Mineworkers in the great strike of 1984â85. Legal restrictions on British unions, attempted in the 1970s, were reintroduced in the following decade. But if the political and industrial climate had turned more sharply against British than Australasian unions, the problem of adaptation to change remained a common one.
