Market failure arises when the outcome of an economic transaction is not completely efficient, meaning that all costs and benefits related to the transaction are not limited to the buyer and the seller in the transaction. Individual consumers will often purchase goods with an environmental component to make up for their inability to directly purchase environmental goods, thus revealing the value they hold for certain aspects of environmental quality. For example, someone may buy a cabin on a lake in order to enjoy not only the home itself but also the lakeâs pristine environment. If the individual could exclusively capture the environmental benefits that result from owning the cabin, the demand for cabins would reflect the full value of both the home and the environmental goods it provides, and the market for cabins would be efficient. Unfortunately, in the case of environmental goods, markets often fail to produce an efficient result, because it is rare that any one individual can incur the full benefit, as well as the cost, of a particular level of environmental quality. That is because environmental goods commonly suffer from the presence of externalities (that is, consequences that no one pays for) or a lack of property rights.
There are two types of externalities, negative and positive. Negative externalities exist when individuals bear a portion of the cost associated with a goodâs production without having any influence over the related production decisions. For example, parents may have to pay higher health-care costs related to pollution-induced asthma among their children because of increased industrial activity in their neighbourhood. Producers do not consider those costs to others in their decisions. As a result, they produce more goods with negative externalities than is efficient, which leads to more environmental degradation than is socially desirable.
Positive externalities also result in inefficient market outcomes. However, goods that suffer from positive externalities provide more value to individuals in society than is taken into account by those providing the goods. An example of a positive externality can be seen in the case of college roommates sharing an off-campus apartment. Though a clean kitchen may be valued by all the individuals living in the apartment, the person who decides to finally wash the dishes and scrub the kitchen floor is not fully compensated for providing value to all the roommates. Because of that, the decision to clean the kitchen undervalues the benefits of such an action and the kitchen will go uncleaned more often than is socially desirable. Such is the case with environmental quality. Because markets tend to undervalue goods with positive externalities, market outcomes provide a level of environmental quality that is lower than is socially desirable.
Once the market inefficiency relating to a particular environmental good is understood, policy makers can correct for the inefficiency by employing any number of instruments. Regardless of the instrument, the goal is to provide incentives to individual consumers and firms so that they will choose a more efficient level of emissions or environmental quality.
Command and control is a type of environmental regulation that allows policy makers to specifically regulate both the amount and the process by which a firm should maintain the quality of the environment. Often it takes the form of a reduction of emissions released by the firm during the production of its goods. This form of environmental regulation is very common and allows policy makers to regulate goods where a market-based approach is either not possible or not likely to be popular.
