Since the 1960s there have been several attempts to impose some rationality upon defense planning. The complexity of weapons development has few parallels in civilian development. Working close to technological frontiers (sometimes having to think beyond them) under management systems imbued with a public-sector rather than a commercial ethos, under government budgetary constraints and shifting political priorities, and subject to ever-changing estimates of the threat the system is designed to counter, has produced an expensive and time-consuming procurement system. Lead times of 18 to 25 years from initial concept to in-service production are not unknown in defense procurement.
The need for more rational choices in weapon programs and in the deployment of scarce resources increased as the defense budgets grew in absolute size (though falling as a proportion of a growing GDP). The cost of errors in choice increases as the cost of a single weapon platform escalates, so that, with a new weapon system costing $10â40 billion, it is crucial not to find that it is not needed by the time it is in service, that the technology cannot be made to work, or that it has been made obsolete by new developments.
The Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missile program, begun by the United States in 1956, was the first highly complex system that required new management techniques to be brought to successful completion. One techniqueâcalled program evaluation and review technique (PERT)âfound civilian applications after it was invented by the U.S. Navy to build Polaris on time and under budget. Similarly, earlier techniques such as costâbenefit analysis (invented to cope with submarine hunting problems during World War II) and inputâoutput analysis (a technique developed by the U.S. Air Force for identifying the critical parts of an economy to develop or damage) rapidly spread into civilian use and into most academic management programs.
The first attempts to bring rational choice to the management of a defense budget coincided with the U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Terms such as systems analysis, as well as planning, programming, and budgeting systems (PPBS) and functional costing, became common in defense management. Much of the intellectual capital invested in these techniques came from economists, whose discipline in costing options and marginal analysis provided them (if not always the defense managers they advised) a set of tools appropriate to the task.
When decisions are made solely by the lobbying of special interestsâsuch as the navy, air force, and armyâthe result is likely to be a constant compromise under which programs remain in the budget because of political considerations. Defense analysts attempt to force the military lobbyists to set specific objectives for their programs and to accept criteria by which the military value of the programs can be judged. Like many management fashions, PPBS and its associated techniques did not survive in their earliest forms, but they did establish the belief that analyzing, evaluating, and choosing rationally was superior to lobbying by bureaucrats and, sometimes, by corrupting commercial interests.
This can be illustrated by the technique of functional costing. Ordinarily, most budgets are a listing of expenditures under various main headingsâpersonnel, equipment, and suppliesâand the total is approved through the political process. This type of budget is called an accountability budget because it accounts for defense expenditure, but it cannot inform the defense planner (or the taxpayer) how efficiently the defense department has spent the budget. Under functional costing, the objectives of a proposed military program are shown along with the costs of all the resources needed to fulfill each objective, irrespective of which armed service contributes to the activity.
For example, under functional costing there is no navy budget that costs everything spent by the navy. There is instead a maritime defense budget, a deep-sea navy budget, a coastal defense budget, and so on. These budgets may include costed contributions from units of the navy, air force, and army, plus an assessment of the costs of support functions used to carry out the activities. If, for instance, it is proposed to add a longer-range aircraft to the maritime defense role, this can be costed, and, depending upon the importance of extending maritime defense compared to other objectives, an informed decision can be made on whether to allocate the incremental funds to the upgraded aircraft or to some other project supporting some other military activity. Deciding between marginal increases or decreases in expenditures across different functions, all of them linked to specified objectives, is an improvement over buying aircraft simply because it is the turn of the air force to get a big project approved by the government.
Modern armed forces use either a voluntary recruitment scheme or a form of conscription to supply the people needed to staff the military. Each scheme has economic consequences.
Conscription involves a period of compulsory military service for all eligible males, usually triggered by their date of birth. (In some countries, such as Israel, females are also required to undergo military service, though usually in a support rather than a combat role.) Conscription provides a pool of recruits at a low cost per head. The conscripts receive extremely low wages, well below what they would earn as civilians. This difference in earnings is a direct monetary loss to them and a loss to society, which loses the output they would produce if they remained civilians. Conscription offers a net saving only to the defense budget, although what is saved in personnel costs is largely spent in increased training costs. Conscript armies require much larger training programs than volunteer armies because the service life of a conscript (two or three years) is shorter than a volunteerâs term of engagement (three to 15 years). Each new age group of conscripts has to be trained, diverting full-time soldiers from other duties as well as adding to overall costs.
Volunteer armies cost more per head because their wages must be comparable in some degree to civilian wages. While a national emergency can induce people to volunteer, a peacetime recruit is influenced by the alternative incomes that can be earned as a civilian. Some people volunteer whatever the wages, and some volunteer because they are unemployed as civilians, but most evidence indicates that volunteer rates will fall if military wages fall too far below civilian wages. This is particularly true for volunteer officers, who take with them critical skills when they leave the armed forces for well-paid jobs as civilians.
While volunteer armies cost more per head, they can cost less in total because they do not have to be as large as conscript armies. Although conscription is common across the three branches of the armed services, the proportion of regular volunteers to conscripts is smaller in the army and larger by far in the navy and air force. Ships and aircraft require more-skilled and better-educated personnel than infantry divisions, and the navy and air force in most countries tend to use conscripts only in less-skilled roles, reserving the command roles (pilots, captains, engineers, navigators) for volunteers. This pattern can be seen in many Latin-American military forces. In Israel, where conscription covers practically the entire population, the problem of retaining skilled recruits is met by extending the periods of military service through the civilian lifetimes of the recruits.
All personnel policies are vulnerable to demography. The proportion of a nationâs population that is made up of young people eligible by fitness and intelligence for military service sets a limit on how many can be conscripted or induced to volunteer. Conscript armies, which are cost-effective when there is a large pool of young people from which to choose, are particularly threatened by demographic changes that reduce the pool of potential recruits. As the birth rate appears to fall in higher-income economies over time, the prospect for mass conscript armies looks bleak. Switching to an all-volunteer force is a short-term alternative, although the decline in the recruitable age group will force up military wages as the armed forces compete with civilian employers for the same age group. Substituting technology for labour is another short-term solution. But it too has limitations, not the least of them the problem of recruiting from a shrinking age group a sufficiently educated and skilled labour pool to operate sophisticated military equipment.
