A second problem concerns the factors that determine the rate of accumulation of capital; that is, the rate of investment. It has been seen that investment in real terms is the difference between production and consumption. The classical economist laid great stress on frugality as the principal source of capital accumulation. If production is constant it is true that the only way to increase accumulation is by the reduction of consumption. Keynes shifted the emphasis from the reduction of consumption to the increase of production, and regarded the decision to produce investment goods as the principal factor in determining the rate of growth of capital. In modern theories of economic development great stress is laid on the problem of the structure of production—the relative proportions of different kinds of activity. The advocates of “balanced growth” emphasize the need for a developing country to invest in a wide range of related and cooperative enterprises, public as well as private. There is no point in building factories and machines, they say, if the educational system does not provide a labour force capable of using them. There is also, however, a case to be made for “unbalanced growth,” in the sense that growth in one part of the economy frequently stimulates growth in other parts. A big investment in mining or in hydroelectric power, for example, creates strains on the whole society, which result in growth responses in the complementary sectors. The relation of inflation to economic growth and investment is an important though difficult problem. There seems to be little doubt that deflation, mainly because it shifts the distribution of income away from the profit maker toward the rentier and bondholder, has a deleterious effect on investment and the growth of capital. In 1932, for instance, real investment had practically ceased in the United States. It is less clear at what point inflation becomes harmful to investment. In countries where there has been long continuing inflation there seems to be some evidence that the structure of investment is distorted. Too much goes into apartment houses and factories and not enough into schools and communications.
A third problem that exists in capital theory is that of the period of production and the time structure of the economic process. This cannot be solved by the simple formulas of the Austrian school. Nevertheless, the problem is a real one and there is still a need for more useful theoretical formulations of it. Decisions taken today have results extending far into the future. Similarly, the data of today’s decisions are the result of decisions that were taken long in the past. The existing capital structure is the embodiment of past decisions and the raw material of present decisions. The incompatibility of decisions is frequently not discovered at the time they are made because of the lapse of time between the decision and its consequences. It is tempting to regard the cyclical structure of human history, whether the business cycle or the war cycle, as a process by which the consequences of bad decisions accumulate until some kind of crisis point is reached. The crisis (a war or a depression) redistributes power in the society and so leads to a new period of accumulating, but hidden, stress. In this process, distortion in the capital structure is of great importance.
A fourth problem to be considered is the relationship that exists between the stocks and the flows of a society, or in a narrower sense the relation between capital and income. Income, like capital, is a concept that is capable of many definitions; a useful approach to the concept of income is to regard it as the gross addition to capital in a given period. For any economic unit, whether a firm or an individual, income may be measured by that hypothetical amount of consumption that would leave capital intact. In real terms this is practically identical with the concept of production. The total flow of income is closely related to both the quantity and the structure of capital; the total real income of a society depends on the size and the skills of its population, and on the nature and the extent of the equipment with which they have to work. The most important single measure of economic well-being is real income per person; this is closely related to the productivity of labour, and this in turn is closely related to capital per person, especially if the results of investment in human resources, skills, and education are included in the capital stock.
Historically, the concept of capital has been so closely bound to the concept of interest that it seems wise to take these two topics together, even though in the modern view it is capital and income rather than capital and interest that are the related concepts.
Interest as a form of income may be defined as income that is received as a result of the possession of contractual obligations for payment on the part of another. Interest, in other words, is income that is received as a result of the ownership of a bond, a promissory note, or some other instrument that represents a promise on the part of some other party to pay sums in the future. The obligations may take many forms. In the case of the perpetuity, the undertaking is to pay a certain sum each year or other interval of time for the indefinite future. A bond with a date of maturity usually involves a promise to pay a certain sum each year for a given number of years, and then a larger sum on the terminal date. A promissory note frequently consists of a promise to pay a single sum at a date that is some time in the future.
If a 1, a 2,…an are the sums received by the bondholder in years 1, 2…n, and if P 0 is the present value in year 0, or the sum for which the bond is purchased, the rate of interest r in the whole transaction is given by the equation
There is no general solution for this equation, though in practice it can be solved easily by successive approximation, and in special cases the equation reduces to much simpler forms. In the case of a promissory note, for instance, the equation reduces to the form
where an is the single promised payment. In the case of a perpetuity with an annual payment of a, the formula reduces to
Thus if one had to pay $200 to purchase a perpetual annuity of $5 per annum, the rate of interest would be 2 1 2 percent.
It should be observed that the dimensions of the rate of interest are those of a rate of growth. The rate of interest is not a price or ratio of exchange; it is not itself determined in the market. What is determined in the market is the price of contractual obligations or “bonds.” The higher the price of a given contractual obligation, the lower the rate of interest on it. Suppose, for instance, that one has a promissory note that is a promise to pay one $100 in one year’s time. If I buy this for $100 now, the rate of interest is zero; if I buy it for $95 now the rate of interest is a little over 5 percent; if I buy it for $90 now, the rate of interest is about 11 percent. The rate of interest may be defined as the gross rate of growth of capital in a contractual obligation.
A distinction is usually made between interest and profit as forms of income. In ordinary speech, profit usually refers to income derived from the ownership of aggregates or assets of all kinds organized in an enterprise. This aggregate is described by a balance sheet. In the course of the operations of the enterprise, the net worth grows, and profit is the gross growth of net worth. Stocks, as opposed to bonds, usually imply a claim on the profits of some enterprise.
