Governments have employed various measures to maintain farm prices and incomes above what the market would otherwise have yielded. They have included tariffs or import levies, import quotas, export subsidies, direct payments to farmers, and limitations on production. Tariffs and import quotas can be effective only if a country normally imports some of its supply. Export subsidies result in higher prices to domestic consumers than to foreign purchasers; their use requires control over imports to prevent foreign supplies from entering the domestic market and bringing prices down. Direct payments to farmers have been used to maintain prices to consumers at reasonable levels, while assuring farmers a return above world-market levels. Limitations on production, intended to reduce supply and thus increase prices, have been used in Brazil (for coffee) and in the United States (for major crops).
The effects of price and income policies are difficult to assess. The policies have unquestionably worked to raise agricultural production in the countries where they have been applied, but their usefulness as a means of enhancing the economic well-being of farm people is debatable. The governments of the industrial countries have been able to raise the returns from agriculture above the levels that would have prevailed in the absence of such intervention. In addition to maintaining prices, they provide subsidies for agricultural inputs such as tractor fuel and chemical fertilizers; they also gave assistance in consolidating small farms into larger ones and in improving farm buildings.
The level of income and the economic well-being of farm people in general are determined by many factors, including not only the prices they receive for their output but also the rate at which the economy in general is growing, the ease with which people can move from farm to nonfarm jobs, the prices they must pay for their productive inputs, and their level of education. With respect to average income per person, as distinguished from total income, the prices received and paid are probably less important than the other factors mentioned. That becomes obvious when one compares farm incomes in developed countries with those in less-developed ones; the differences in real income have to do mainly with the levels of economic development and not with farm prices or subsidies. Government efforts to increase farm prices are likely to be offset, in the long run, by an increase in the number of persons engaged in farming, and that tends to keep the returns to farm labour from rising much faster than they would in the absence of such policies.
There are two other reasons for believing that the income effects of higher farm prices or subsidies are relatively insignificant in the long run compared with other factors affecting incomes of farm workers. One is that an increase in farm prices induces farmers to use more fertilizer, machinery, fuel and oil, and other items. If a significant part of any increase in gross income is used for such things, the absolute increase in net farm income is much smaller than the increase in gross farm income. The second reason is that a given increase in government-supported farm prices generally occurs only once. After the increase in returns has been realized, the higher farm prices contribute nothing further to incomes. In contrast, general economic growth along with the continued reduction of the farm labour force has cumulative effects on the return to farm labour. If the returns to farm labour were to grow at an average annual rate of about 3 percent, for example, farm prices would have to increase at least 3 percent annually (assuming other prices did not change) to have the same effect on returns to farm resources.
The costs of the agricultural price and income policies of industrial countries are substantial; they include not only direct governmental outlays but also the increased costs to consumers in those countries, as well as the losses to developing countries of potential export markets.
The organization of farming
Ownership
Except in the few countries with communist governments, most farmland is privately owned. That does not mean, however, that the land is owned by those who farm it. In most countries a major aspiration of farm people has been to achieve the ownership of the land they work. After World War II, for example, Japan and Taiwan underwent land reforms that were intended to broaden ownership, and similar reforms have been advocated in other countries.
On a cooperative farm the land is owned jointly by the members of the group who farm it. The cooperative generally also owns all the major means of production, and the members supply all or most of the labour. While there are examples of cooperative farms in many countries, they loom large only in Israel, where the kibbutzim control about one-tenth of all agricultural land.
In a collective farm, at least as organized in the former Soviet republics, the land was owned by the state but was permanently leased to the kolkhoz (collective farm). The kolkhoz owned its own equipment and livestock and was required to meet certain commitments to the state in the form of deliveries of farm products. In theory, the members of the kolkhoz were to elect the officers of the farm and establish the procedures by which the net product was to be divided among the members for services performed. In practice, however, their autonomy was severely limited by the economic plans. In most cases these plans were incredibly detailed, specifying the crops to be grown, the times of plowing, planting, and harvesting, the quantities of fertilizer and manures to be used, and the kinds of livestock to be maintained.
On state farms the land and all other means of production are owned by the state. The workers are paid in wages, and management decisions are made by individuals directly responsible to the state.
