Montreal Protocol

Montreal Protocol, international treaty, adopted in Montreal on September 16, 1987, that aimed to regulate the production and use of chemicals that contribute to the depletion of Earth’s ozone layer. Initially signed by 46 countries, the treaty now has nearly 200 signatories.

In the early 1970s, American chemists F. Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina theorized that chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds combine with solar radiation and decompose in the stratosphere, releasing atoms of chlorine and chlorine monoxide that are individually able to destroy large numbers of ozone molecules. (Along with Dutch chemist Paul Crutzen, Rowland and Molina were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work.) Their research, first published in the journal Nature in 1974, initiated a federal investigation of the problem in the United States, and the National Academy of Sciences concurred with their findings in 1976. In 1978 CFC-based aerosols were banned in the United States, Norway, Sweden, and Canada.

Further validation of their work came in 1985 with the discovery of a “hole” in the ozone shield over Antarctica by the British Antarctic Survey and the publication of its findings in Nature. Shortly before these findings were to appear, representatives from 28 countries met to discuss the issue at the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. The meeting called for international cooperation in research involving ozone-depleting chemicals (ODCs) and empowered the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to lay the groundwork for the Montreal Protocol.

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The initial agreement was designed to reduce the production and consumption of several types of CFCs and halons to 80 percent of 1986 levels by 1994 and 50 percent of 1986 levels by 1999. The protocol went into effect on January 1, 1989. Since then the agreement has been amended to further reduce and completely phase out CFCs and halons, as well as the manufacture and use of carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), methyl bromide, and other ODCs. Several subsequent meetings of the signing countries were convened to track overall progress toward this goal and to authorize new changes to the process of phasing out ODCs.

It is important to note that ODC phase-out schedules differ between developed and developing countries. The period for developing countries to come into compliance is slightly longer, owing to the fact that they have fewer technical and financial resources to introduce substitutes. In developed countries the production and consumption of halons formally ended by 1994, several other chemicals (such as CFCs, HBFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform) were phased out by 1996, methyl bromide was eliminated in 2005, and HCFCs are scheduled to be completely phased out by 2030. In contrast, developing countries phased out CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, and halons by 2010 and methyl bromide by 2015, and they are scheduled to eliminate HCFCs by 2040.

The Antarctic ozone hole grew in size throughout the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century. The ozone layer over the Arctic also thinned, although not as pronouncedly as over the Antarctic. Despite these findings, most scientists contend that the ozone layer will eventually recover. They note that the success of the treaty is exclusively responsible for the substantial decrease of ODCs available for release into the atmosphere. The first signs of recovery appeared in 2018. According to the World Meteorological Organization and the UNEP, the ozone layer is not expected to return to 1980 values until at least the mid-2030s over the Arctic and the 2060s over Antarctica.